INTERNAL FACTORS FOR NATIONALISM

INTERNAL FACTORS FOR NATIONALISM

• Formation of peasant cooperative unions, especially in rural areas to defend the interests and welfare of the farmers, where some associations were formed by the colonialists as to speed up the production and the marketing of cash crop as well as sensitizing peasants about cultivation through their associations. But later alone developed nationalistic feelings and turned against the colonialists using their association’s structures in rural areas.
• Intensive exploitation after the Second World War in the colonies the colonizers wanted to revamp their ruined economies, which were heavily damaged by the war; large scale colonization was carried out.
• Formation of independent churches, these were churches that were lead by the Africans breaking away from main stream white churches to challenge their misdeeds over the Africans. They addressed not only religious but also social, political and economic grievances of Africans such churches included Joseph Ejayi in west Africa, the Kikuyu native church, the watch tower church movement in Malawi 1906, the African national church in Tanganyika, the people God and religion of Jesus in Kenya and united native church in Cameroon. Such churches openly criticized the colonialists and encouraged their followers to fight them thus the rise of African nationalism
• Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary and colonial school taught nothing but European based syllabus some African societies begun their own schools, like among the Kikuyu in Kenya Africans were taught African syllabus. This helped in educating Africans and developing the spirit of nationalism.
• Rise of elites, who had attained colonial education like Nyerere in Tanganyika, Nkurumah in Ghana, Kamuzu Banda in Malawi and AbafemiAwolowo of Nigeria. This education helped them to get used to the white language, to get exposed to various struggle and liberation of the world. But on top of that some elite came from outside Africa the combination of both helped to the rise of nationalism provision of leadership for nationalistic struggle.
• Ghana independence in 1957, it was example to estimate other African nations to begin fight for their freedom so it as possible for them also to attain independence from their colonial power.
• The Italy vs. Ethiopia war of 1935-1941, under Mussolini and Haile Selasie and RasImra increased the momentum of African nationalism Italy an industrialized nation was heavily and bravery resisted by an African nation Ethiopia this boosted African confidence towards their struggle for independence was defeated.
• Formation of social welfare associations, this aimed to improve the working conditions of African workers discriminations and colonial abuses to the Africans such associations largely based in urban centers and comprised colonial civil servants like the Kikuyu central association in Kenya that was formed by Harry Thuku the railway territory civil association in Tanganyika, Tanganyika territory civil service association (T.T.C.S.A.)which was formed Martin Kayamba the peoples union in 1908 in Nigeria. Such association exerted more pressure on the colonialists to consider giving African independence which led to African nationalism.
• The role played by Mass media especially newspapers played a big role in spreading awareness among the population in both rural and urban areas such newspaper included Sautiya TANU in Tanganyika, the pilot and the comet in Nigeria
• Colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in facilitating the spread and the rise of African nationalism that’s why some historians do say that colonialism sown a seed of its own destruction, infrastructures like railway and roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in rural and urban centers by spreading the message of liberation in all parts of Africa.
• The returning ex-soldiers, these were the African militants who participated in the war on the side of their colonial masters assisting them as porters and security guards of many camps, this participation brought awareness since these soldiers were exposed to western democracy, freedom and liberation message some veterans like Dedan Kimathi who were later a leader of Mau Mau in Kenya
• FORMS OF NATIONALISTIC STRUGGLES IN AFRICA

From 1919 –1940s Nationalistic struggles changed from wars of resistances to formation of social welfare associations.

SOCIAL WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS

Social and welfare associations; are social groups associations formed by Africans to meet the immediate needs of members by protesting colonial exploitation, oppression and humiliations. They played an important role of providing political education to African communities by showing the evil of colonialism and the need to liberate themselves. Or

Social and welfare associations were groups which were formed by Africans who were working in different sectors of colonial economy such as agriculture, industries.

The major groups of social and welfare associations

• The skilled and unskilled workers, these comprised of elites both skilled and unskilled workers who lived in poor houses and had no sufficient health and education services compared to Asians and Europeans. They demanded better terms of services, equal provision of wages and salaries to workers of the same qualifications regardless of their race differences.
• African traders, these were petty traders in urban areas who were addressing their grievances including discrimination as African traders were discriminated while Asian and European traders were favored much by the colonial governments through provision of loans and other facilities.
• Peasants and cooperative societies, these were peasants cooperative unions aiming at defending the needs of the farmers since the colonial government confiscated their land and offered it to the white settlers while Africans possess little land and forced them to live in infertile land. Examples of these associations were Kilimanjaro Native Planters Association of Tanganyika and Ukamba Members Associations of Kenya.

Social and welfare associations were formed to remove;

•  Colonial exploitation.
•  Colonial discrimination.
•  Poor working conditions.
•  Low payment. Forced labor.
•  Land alienation.

All these affected the members of the group. The major aim of social and welfare association was to create colonial government that would respect Africans’ rights rather than demanding for independence.

The Reason for the Rise of Social and Welfare Associations

• The influence of ex soldiers from the first and second world wars, these were the Africans who were recruited by colonial governments to fight on their sides abroad these countries like Burma, Sri Lanka and other parts of the world. They created awareness to the Africans about the importance of welfare associations in the process of nationalism struggle.
• The role of African elites especially those trained by colonialists for the aim of assisting colonial administration in various fields like clerks, teachers, nurses among others. They mobilized their fellow workers to form social organizations within their working areas demanding good living and working conditions for workers as well as better salaries and wages as well as same benefits regardless their race differences.
• The increase of exploitation of human resources and natural resources, the world wars left European countries with economic difficulties as a result they decided to come to Africa to compensate their economic loss by exploiting African resource through land alienation, forced labor, taxation and payment of low wages this situation led the Africans to rise social and welfare associations to protest colonial exploitations.
• Awareness of civilized urban dwellers on colonial evils most Africans who settled in urban centers so the need to establish welfare associations especially among the people who originated from the same regions or clans, they later on provided such awareness to the African village dwellers who joined hands by supporting the establishment of social and welfare associations.

Weaknesses/problems of social and welfare associations

• It was based on small group’s organization like tribal or class as a result it was very difficult to for their grievances to be fulfilled by the colonial governments for they could not mobilize most of their countrymen.
• Frustration and fear among members due to colonial government harassment to members and leaders of social and welfare associations following this situation the members and leaders of the associations failed to stand firm for the interest of their associations. For example the Harry Thuku of the Kikuyu Central Association in Kenya was softened his stand against the colonial government after being exiled.
• Financial problems, most of social and welfare association faced the problem of inadequate funds this was due to the fact that they were depending income from their members’ subscriptions to meet their needs. Yet, their members earned low income and at the same time they had other obligations like tax payments and daily life needs as a result they contributed a small amounts in the association something that resulted to financial problems.
• Inadequate knowledge and skills of leaders in managements, many leaders of social and welfare associations had little knowledge and skills of managing offices and leading people this created difficulties in organization and mobilization of members within a given association.
• Banning of social and welfare associations by colonial governrnent this was due to the fact that these associations were against colonial governments and administrations that is why colonial governments decided to ban them in order to abolish them. This situation made Africans to experience difficulties in organizing the associations.

Strengths and contributions of social and welfare associations during the struggle for African independence

• Establishment of infrastructures such as offices came to be used by the nationalist leaders during the struggle for independence.
• Preparation of nationalist leaders these associations prepared African nationalist leaders who were members of the associations through providing political awareness that made them to stand firm in struggling for African liberation. For example Jomo Kenyatta was a member of the Kikuyu Central Association who later on organized Kenyans to fight for their liberation.
• They provided awareness among the Africans on the evils of colonial governments, through these associations many Africans especially the members of the associations awakened on the injustice of colonialism. For example in Kenya the Ukambani experiencing demonstrations due to the increase of awareness.
• Journal publications, some social and welfare associations published their journals which carried out various political agenda and communicated with their members on different issues of their concern.

Generally they organized meetings which came to be a forum for airing their own grievances to the colonial rule. Furthermore, they created a base on which the true nationalism activities stood

PROTEST AND RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT

Protest can be referred as a reaction against those who mistreat or humiliate others, indicating that their treatment cannot be taken any more. Protest can be divided into two;

• Active protest this involves physical reaction such as fighting or striking
• Passive protest this involves silent reactions such as boycotts.

The African religious movements prevailed in the early 20th century among African communities. They took form of either indigenous protest movements like Msambwa Religious Movements in Kenya or the form of independent churches that had broken away from white missionaries churches.

African independent churches’ paved the way for African emancipation to occupy high ranks in the church hierarchy; previously Africans were at the bottom in the church as they only ended up being bible school teachers and catechists all high ranks and decision were made by white missionaries, the formation of independent churches made the Africans to accept Christianity as a religion not an aspect of colonial system as they thought to be when it was conducted by white missionaries.

Generally, the breaking away of African from various western missionary churches to independent churches was an expression of a protest against colonial domination in Africa.

The Meaning of Protest and Religious Movements

Protest refers to a strong reaction against mistreatment and humiliation. Protests can be divided into two categories: Active protest e.g. physical reaction like fighting, and passive protest e.g. boycotts. While African religious movements were movements created by Africans to protest colonial powers.

The Causes of the Rise of Protest and Religious Movements

(Analyze the causes of the rise of protest and religious movements)

• Church segregation, the European churches preached the salvation and equality of human being before God while Africans were segregated, oppressed and not allowed even to lead prayers they were taken as third citizens.
• The assistance of missionary to colonizers, the European churches also involved in helping colonizers in land alienation, forced labour, taxation and administration which had no any relation with the teaching of the bible.
• Africans realized that the European churches and colonialism were two sides of the same coin that the Christian missionaries were only to pave way for colonization process of Africa as many of them acquired labour farms and exploited African just like the white settlers.
• Missionaries advised Africans concerning political and economic problems by breaking their resistance e.g. through preaching biblical doctrines like the humble people are the blessed for them will enter the kingdom of God forgive those who wrong you.
• Missionaries intervened in African culture like girl circumcision among the kikuyu people in Kenya who vehemently detested the missionary activities. That prompted them to start independent schools and begun to spread.
• The Africans showed disapproval of missionaries’ education system, they considered it inadequate as it only taught African reading, writing and arithmetic (3Rs) this enabled African to occupy low position in colonial administration like clerks and wound dressers in the colonial government’s hospital.
• The Africans wanted to counter attack the colonial exploitation and domination independent church campaigned against payment of taxes by African, racial discrimination, unequal provision of social services and forced labour.

The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Protest and Religious Movements during the Struggle for Independence

Weaknesses/problems faced by religious movements during the struggle for independence

• Financial problems the independent churches experienced in adequate funds because of depending on the little money rose from the few members of the churches that could not sustain most of their needs. For example the churches needed funds to support a large number of pupils expelled from mission schools in Kenya during the female circumcision controversy of the 1920's and 1930's.
• Conflicts among church leaders within independent churches there were several church leadership conflicts emerged among the church founders, since everyone demanded leadership recognition in the church.
• Competition between independent churches and the white missionary churches for followers following this the white missionaries influenced many Africans to be converted into their churches by all means including provision of gifts like clothes and shoes for the aim of preventing African independent churches from getting followers.
• Lack of enough trained personnel as most of teachers in independent churches were untrained since most of them were ex-missionary school students with little western education and management skills.

Strengths and contributions of protest and religious movements during the struggle for independence

• Establishment of African independent schools these schools enrolled African children only and they were taught their culture and evils of colonialism as a result later on they became political activists.
• Provision of reformism education, by teaching the Africans that the missionaries were mere agents of colonialism and practicing discrimination in the church and its hierarchy following these missionaries was not fully evangelical as they preached thus reforms were inevitable.
• The increase of awareness among the Africans due to various protest including active demonstrations, boycotts and strikes especially when colonial governments used force to avoid protest. For example the religious protest in the Nyasa land under Chilembwe when suppressed made the movements to be popular.
• The religious movements and churches instructed Africans not to pay tax and not to be involved in the imperialist wars because Africans were not beneficiaries of these.

1. INDEPENDENT CHURCHES / RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

 These were churches which were made by Africans out of churches formed by Missionaries, They opposed European church leaders who discriminated African church leadership and despise African customs like polygamy and female circumcision, They also opposed land alienation, forced labor, involvement of Africans in European wars.

Examples of Independence Churches were;

• Kikuyu independent church formed in 1929 by David Maina (Kenya)
• Religion of spirit –“Dini ya msambwa” formed by Elijah Masinde which opposed colonialism and foreign religion (Kenya).
• Watch tower church and African National church-Tanzania.
• Province Industrial Mission Church formed by John Chilembwe in Malawi.
• The African national church of God
• The independent church of Congo by Simoni Kimbangu.
• The Ethiopian church by Willie Mokalapa
• United native church of Cameroon
• The Aladura Pentecostal church of Nigeria by Joseph Ejai

Factors for Rise of Independent Churches

1. Missionaries didn’t value and accommodate African ways of worship.

2. Africans regarded Missionaries as agents of colonialism.

3. Africans were upset by Missionary teachings which were against African traditions and customs.

4. Colonial exploitation such as forced labor, taxation and discrimination in the provision of social services.

Strength of Independent Churches Movements

1. Drew attention to African grievance e.g. political and social injustices.

2. Stimulated moral and courage towards fighting for National independence.

3. Helped to convey message of freedom.

4. Created unity to all Africans to fight for their rights.

5. Made Africans aware of European exploitation.

Therefore African independent church played big role in the African struggle for independence.

Weakness of Independence Churches

1. They lacked enough funds because they depended on few followers contributions.

2. They faced constant competition from Missionaries for followers.

3. They faced strong opposition from the missionaries and colonial government. African church leaders were arrested and some churches were closed.

4. They lacked well trained personnel to run the church efficiently.

2. WORKERS ASSOCIATION/TRADE UNIONS

These were formed by workers to address their grievances such as low education, low wages, poor health facilities, lack of representatives in local council and discrimination at working places.

Example of Workers’ Associations

1. Tanganyika Territory civil servant Association (T.T.C.S.A), Formed in 1922 in Tanga by Martin Kayamba.

2. Tanganyika African Association 1929 which became TAA-

3. Young Kavirondo association formed by students lead by their teacher Jonathan Okwir.

4. Kikuyu central association formed in 1924 by Joseph Kangethe.

 Its demands were

- To end land alienation and discrimination.

- To allow Africans to grow cotton and coffee.

- It condemned missionary church which prevents female circumcision. In 1928 Jomo Kenyatta became its secretary.

These demanded abolition of Kipande system, decrease hut and poll tax, exclude women in taxation and eliminate force labor.

3. TRIBAL ASSOCIATIONS

These were ethnic organizations formed by member of a certain tribe to address specific grievance in tribe such as poor health, education and absence of representatives in local council.

4. PEASANT ASSOCIATIONS

These were formed by farmers to air their grievances e.g. Low price for their crops. Examples of peasants associations were;

• Kilimanjaro native planters association formed by Joseph Mwinyi in 1925,
• Kikuyu Central association 1928, whose general secretary was Jomo Kenyata,
• The Young Buganda association founded in 1920.
• The Bataka cooperative union of 1927 in Uganda
• Bukoba cooperative union of 1924 by Clement Kiiza in Tanganyika
• Bahaya native growers Association
• Kilimanjaro native planters of 1952 under Joseph Mwinyi
• The Victorian federation co-operative union in sukuma land (Mwanza)
• The Abangila Association in Ghana
• Nigerian Young Movement in Nigeria.

RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM AND POLITICAL PARTIES IN AFRICA

Mass nationalism is the mass feeling and attitude of demanding independence by using a nationalist struggle in form of unified parties beyond the class, tribe or ethnic back ground.

Reasons for the Rise of Mass Nationalism       

1. The colonial governments denied African the right to rule themselves. The colonial governments used puppet African chiefs as African political leaders, hence majority of Africans were deprived of the right to elect their leaders democratically.

2. The colonial governments introduced harsh and forced tax payment procedures to the Africans. African workers were over exploited through payment of very low wages and salaries that made them live in devastating conditions. For example in Mozambique and Tanganyika messengers, teachers, clerks and soldiers worked in poor conditions and were lowly paid.

3. Religious, the colonial government and other Europeans living in Africa were strongly against African traditional beliefs and forced Africans to join Christianity through their missionary teachings.

4. They used their education and other skills acquired from the colonial system to demand independence and rebelled by formulating to know how to read, write and simple arithmetic while they maintained their African Cultural practices. Examples of independent schools are those formulated by the kikuyu in Kenya

5. The over exploitation of Africans by the colonial governments, After the end of the second world war, the colonial governments emphasized on the use of forced labor as an effect of the great depression which affected their economies in their home countries Great depression which affected their economies in their home countries.

Characteristics of mass nationalism

• Well organized and planned by elites, African leaders those that were educated from colonial schools.
• It was a national wide that it covered the whole nation through opening up many branches in the whole state both in the rural and urban areas.
• It was led by the elites i.e. educated leaders who were focused e.g. Nyerere, Kenyatta,Obote and Nkurumah.
• It was political in origin, i.e. they struggled for political independence of Africa.
• It was dominated by both dialogue and armed struggle, where dialogue proved a failure.
• It was motivated by both internal and external factors, unlike those before 1945 which were motivated by internal forces.
• It led to the independence of some nations i.e. it was successful in getting independence for African nations.

POLITICAL PARTIES IN AFRICA

The Strengths of Political Parties in Africa

1. The political parties rose awareness among different groups of Africans- This was done through political rallies, propaganda newspapers, and organized boycott for example CPP of Ghana encouraged Ghanaians to boycott the colonialists.

2. The political parties had a major duty of unifying the masses to fight a common enemy, which was colonialism. The political to fight a common enemy, which was colonialism, the political parties used youth and women to unify the masses at the grassroots to fight their common enemy. For example CCP of Ghana under Nkrumah and TANU of Tanganyika. They had youth and women groups to support them in fulfilling their goals of bringing independence.

3. The use of peaceful means to fight for independence unlike armed struggle which led to loss of many African lives and property destructions

Weakness of Political Parties in Africa

1. The colonial government created restrictions to political parties. They created restrictions in order to limit their activities and slow down the decolonization process. For example the British colonial government restricted government workers from being members of TANU in Tanganyika.

2. Opposition among political parties within individual African countries, each political party competing against the other to the extent of conducting campaigns against the other instead of joining hands in fighting their common enemy. The major causes of such rivalry were ethinism, regionalism.

3. Many political parties faced financial problems or constraints; this was due to its members who were poor and unable to contribute the money required for various political activities.

4. Political parties lacked the support of other organizations such as women, youth, farmer associations in their move of propagating the decolonization process in Africa.

DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA

Decolonization is the process by which a country (colony) is granted social, economic and political independence by the colonial power. It is a state in which a colony becomes free from imperial dominated powers.

The decolonization of African states began immediately after the second world war in 1945. African states employed/waged different means in the struggle for independence .the methods used by Africans depended on the nature of the colonial economy which was practiced in the colony, for example almost all African colonies which were settler colonies regained their freedom through the battle of gun because the settlers had invested much in the respective colonies thus they were not willing to grant them independence. The common forms of struggle were four as follows;

1. Political/ constitutional/ peaceful means.

In this method the colonies used peaceful means such as negotiations, dialogues, diplomacy while demanding for their freedom through this means were under the UNO Trusteeship council. The respective nationalistic leaders went almost annually to the UNO Trusteeship council to ask for the freedom of their countries, examples of the African countries which regained their freedom through constitutional means are /were Ghana(1957), Tanganyika(1961) and Uganda(1962).

2. Armed struggle/ bloodshed means

This was the violence means employed by some African states to liberate themselves from colonial control. Most of these were the ones in which settlers had invested much and that they were not willing to leave.  Examples of African states which regained their freedom through this means were Kenya(1963), Zimbabwe(1980), Congo(1960), Angola(1975) and Mozambique(1975).

3. Combinational means

It was a blend of both constitutional and Armed struggle. Some countries embarked on this method following the failure of the peaceful means. Example of Africans who combined both methods was South Africa. South Africa embarked on armed struggle soon after the march 21^st 1960 Sharpeville massacre. The ANC leaders being led by Oliver Thambo and Nelson Mandela formed the fighting wing (Umkotho We Sizwe). “the Spear of the Nation”  which led liberation movement in south Africa.

4. Revolutionary means.

A revolution is  a complete overthrow of the existing system of governance by a group, which is subjective to it and being mistreated, exploited, discriminated, and oppressed. an example of the colony which waged this means for liberation is Zanzibar revolution on Sunday 12^th January in 1964. It was the revolution which completely overthrew the Jamshid Abdullah Sultanate regime. Others were Egypt revolution, Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau. 

DECOLONIZATION THROUGH CONSTITUTIONAL / PEACEFUL MEANS

This refers to the process of independence struggle through peaceful means that is without the use of armed struggle. Some African countries which used this means were Tanganyika ( now Tanzania), Uganda, Gold coast (Ghana) OR

Decolonization through constitutional means is the type of liberation which involve intensive negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists e.g. the political independence of Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda and Zambia. All applied negotiation or peaceful means to get their independence.

Reasons for the decolonization through constitutional means

• Absence of white settlers, in areas with no settlers like in Tanganyika and other parts of Africa they attained their independence through peaceful means; For example Tanganyika contained influential minorities of Europeans and Asians as the number involved was not large enough to bring obstacle in the path of national independence only 23,000 European among whom only few hundred could properly be regarded as settlers and the number of Asians was 87,000.Hence decolonization through constitutional means.
• Minimal problems like tribalism and religious differences; that would have brought internal disputes struggle or disunity. This was a sovereignty advantage to some African countries. For it was simple for them to unite the masses for self determination.
• The trusteeship colony; a trust territory colony was subjected to measure of supervision by the United Nations a situation that made it impossible for the colonizers government to entirely pressure exerted by international opinion. For example Tanganyika was not mandatory like Uganda or Kenya it was under the trust ship of UN given to Britain as a result her independence was easily influenced by the United Nations.
• The role of political parties, where the political party which took over the power lacked serious opposition from other political parties which would have delayed the independence then the decolonization was through peaceful means. For example Tanganyika TANU was a major political party that had never been banned by the colonial government so it was able to operate freely without any hindrance unlike KANU in Kenya. This was very significant in achieving her goals of independence.
• The role of the leader, where there were strong, approachable and democratic leaders with high sprite of patriotism for nation the independence was achieved through constitutional means. For example in Tanganyika the strong leadership of J.K. Nyerere and Oscar Kambona played a big role in achieving independence in Tanganyika by peaceful means.
• Absence of heavy investment, in places where colonialists did not invest heavily in infrastructure or agriculture which they might have feared to lose the independence was through peaceful means.

The conditions which facilitated constitutional struggle for independence

There are some conditions or factors that facilitated the constitutional means of the struggle for independence. These involved mandatory colony, the role of mass media, the role of elites, the nature of colonial Governor, existence of peasant cash crops, the nature of reaction, the role of political parties and political leaders.

The Problems Experienced during the Struggle for Independence through Constitutional Means

• The colonial bureaucracy was a stumbling block, when it came at registrations of political party branches national wide, the registration governing the operation of political parties was amended aimed at debarring political party‟s the activities the government technically put a delayed tactic in registering the branches of political parties, with the same agenda of checking their spread and its influences.
• The colonial government first applied simple repression, banning of political party’s activities disaffected areas and the second tactics which was applied mostly in French colonies was the creation of colonial government sponsored political parties the like United Tanganyika Party (U.T.P) designed to up hold the cause of multi-racialism.
• Colonial government sabotage by closing political party’s branches and banning its activities, this tactic was used by the colonial government to check the influence of political parties
• The colonial policy of divide and rule, this wanted to divide the people of Africa on ethnicity lines e.g. the meeting of 1957 governor Twining attempted to drive division between traditional rulers and members of nationalist movement. This was a very big obstacle for political parties to forge unity between the masses.
• The opposition from church missionary society, who barred their followers from involving into active politics that would be regarded as disobedient to the church; this affected very many members of political parties who were Christians.
• Lack of education for most nationalists, the colonial government prohibited the civil servants from joining active politics and were the only small elite who were educated that would helped the party. Most of the party members were comprised by a big numbers of peasants
• Poor transport and communication structures, to assist nationalist leaders in mobilizing the masses from different parts to join the movement of struggle for independence for example some roads were impassable during rainy season.
• Lack of political awareness among the masses, as most of the Africans were peasants who were in rural areas and did not know the objectives of the political party and their financial assistance to the party was very minimal.

STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN TANGANYIKA (TANZANIA)

The conditions which facilitated constitutional / peaceful struggle for independence in Tanganyika were as follows

1. Tanganyika was a mandated colony under the British since 1945 thus a UN delegation had always made follow up to ensure that Tanganyika was prepared to be self governing

2. The role played the mass media such as SAUTI YA TANU newspaper which was very much used by TANU to spread its policies and mass mobilization enabled TANU to have mass support not only in the urban centre’s but also in the remote areas where there was some literacy.

3. The wide use of Kiswahili as a lingua franca throughout the country. Kiswahili was spoken y a large population in Tanganyika. Therefore, it eased communication and brought unity among the people of Tanganyika.

The Problems Experienced during the Struggle for Independence in Tanganyika

1. Opposition from other political parties like ANC and UTP. United Tanganyika party (UTP) preferred racial parity in making the government while TANU was against that. TANU was based on the general interests, such as cattle tax, terracing and destocking. TANU called for democratic election of the legislative council (LEGCO) and demanded democracy.

ii. The British colonial government made everything possible to ban TANU by calling it an illegal movements. The civil servants were also prevented from joining the party. The colonial government sponsored the formation of reactionary organizations such as United Tanganyika party (UTP) which was formed by the chiefs and Europeans in 1956. United Tanganyika party claimed that independence was not necessary, but Tanganyika should continue its affiliation with the colonial power.

DECOLONIZATION PROCESS IN UGANDA

The emergence of Nationalistic ideas in Uganda was delayed due to the following factors;

1. Militant nationalism did not emerge early.

2. Forced labor and land alienation were not critical in Uganda.

3. Indirect rule favored the growth of local autonomy to some extent. Because of this many rules became conservatives.

4. Lack of political force in the legislative council. Political parties in Uganda.

The first nationalistic movement to emerge in Uganda was Uganda National Congress.(U.N.C) in 1952. It drew its members from civil servants, petty bourgeoisie and traders. It was formed in reaction to Buganda prominence in Uganda politics. Democratic Party (DP) was formed by Roman Catholic chief called Kiwanuka. The party was both religious and class based. Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) was formed by Milton Obote. It was dominated by Protestants and civil servant. Kabaka Yekka Party (KY) was formed by Kabaka to present the interest of Buganda chiefs. This wanted Buganda to be granted independence separately.

All the above parties participated in 1962 election but no one won, the majority voted in the Legico. This led the formation of coalition government by two parties –UPC and Kabaka Yakka. Obote became the prime minister and Kabaka a president; In 1966 Kabaka was overthrown and Obote became president.

Factors that Hindered Nationalistic struggles in Uganda

1. Tribalism; Tribes in Uganda such as Baganda and Bunyoro didn’t unite and struggle for Independence.

2. Religious conflicts; The Roman Catholic introduced by the French and Protestant introduced by the British were always in antagonism. This weakened nationalistic struggles.

3. Regionalism; the southern Uganda was more developed than the Northern parties in terms of social amenities. So it was difficult this parts to unite and fight for independence.

4. Class division. The major problem was land tenure system whereby the Buganda agreement between Kabaka Daudi and the British divided the land in the crown land and Malolanda (common land).

5. Education. The Buganda was more favored in education those other tribes. This discounted people.

6. Poverty. Most of the nationalists were financialy something made mass organisation poor among the Ugandans.

DECOLONIZATION THROUGH ARMED STRUGGLE

Armed struggle is the struggle for freedom through the use of weapons. It was the way which was applied by some African countries during the struggle for political independence. African countries like Kenya, Algeria and the former Portuguese colonies like Mozambique, Guinea Bissau and Angola got their independence through armed struggle. Some African countries used armed means in their independence struggle. Among those countries are Zimbabwe ( Southern Rhodesia), Kenya and Mozambique.

Reasons for the Armed Struggle

• The colonial powers were not ready to freely grant freedom to countries like Kenya, Algeria Mozambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau (The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence,) some colonial powers were unwilling to grant independence for example the Portugal and British were not willing to grant independence to their colonies hence the Africans decided to use armed struggle to liberate themselves.
• The colonial powers rejected the UNO and OAU instructions to grant independence to these countries. Therefore the only solution to attain independence was through the armed struggle because the settlers and their activities of land alienation and forced labour were not ready to leave their plantations in the colony.
• The colonial regimes were un popular among the people. Therefore the African people used various methods including the armed struggle in order to regain their lost freedom
• The colonial power did not want to abandon their colonies as they viewed them as overseas territories. For example Portugal regarded Mozambique as one of its overseas territories. The colonialists to grant independence to their colonies.
• Colonial power granted Independence to the minority for example in the case of Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) in the southern Rhodes( Zimbabwe)
• Military assistance from USSR, after 1945 USSR consolidated her strength to the zenith it was anti colonialism and sympathizers to African anti colonial struggles. It was ready to provide military support and moral support to liberate the Africans from colonialism thus military struggle.
• Manchester conference, in this conference the major agenda was to liberate Africans from colonialism by all means peaceful or force. This situation gave Africans courage to use force through armed struggle especially in those colonies where the colonialists were reluctant to grant independence.
• The role played by ex soldiers, the war veterans of the Second World War came back with awareness and military skills which they had acquired during the war, their skills encouraged many nationalist to apply force to overthrow the colonialists who were not ready to grant independence to Africans.
• Failures of other methods of liberation, other methods like peaceful means and constitution means failed hence the armed struggle became the last method for getting independence from colonialists.
• The aftermath of India and Pakistan independence, the independence of Asian countries especially India and Pakistan was a big challenge for the Africans to emulate as a result they used all means of liberation to attain their independence.
• The role of pan Africans, this played a big role especially after shifting her headquarters from the new world to Africa. It ensured liberation of African nations by all means.
• Intensive exploitation; after the Second World War the colonialists increased exploitation to the Africans resources to revamp their ruined economies. This situation awakened the Africans against the colonialists as a result they used all means to liberate themselves
• The influence of front line states, these provided military and manpower support to the anti colonial struggle in Africa e.g. Tanganyika during the struggle in south Africa and Namibia or Mozambique.
• Emergence of cold war after 1945, this was the struggle between USA and USSR, where by every bloc wanted to win more countries in Africa so as to spread their political ideologies of socialism or capitalism, this witnessed the giving up weapons to fight the colonialists

STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA

Kenya nationalism was dominated by the rise of political parties and the emergence of Mau Mau freedom fighters.

KANU (Kenya African National Union)

Was formed in 1944 by Eliud Mahu a member of Legco. It demanded increase of African representatives in legco; then Harry Thuki became the chairman but handled over the leadership to James Gichuru in 1945. In 1946 Kenyatta became the pre salient of the party. The party was mainly Kikuyu and had no strength beyond the central province. It was not possible for KANU to mobilize many people who were not literate and European hated many people who were not literate also European hated the party. The party was burned in 1952.

MAUMAU

MauMau was armed struggle against the White settlers in Kenya in 1952-1960 aimed at bringing independence quickly. The group was stated by KAU extreme must and ex-soldiers by the colonial government so African fought to remove such oppressive actions over them.

Mau Mau War

Causes of MauMau Movement

• Land alienation: Colonial government alienated African land and gave it to the European settlers for production of cash crops and settlement. This made Africans to fight for the lost land.
• Forced labor; Africans were forced to work in settler’s farms colonial government ensured constant supply of African labor by passing various labor ordinances e.g. Native master relation labor ordinance of 1921 which required African to carry identity (Kipande system) to show completion of a task in settler’s farm. This annoyed Africans.
• Taxation imposed on African led to the outbreak of MauMau. The people were highly taxed and those who failed were punished British learnt a lesson that their administrative created grievance and discontent among the African.

Effects of MauMau Movement

• Depopulation More than 13,000 people - Asians, civilians, Europeans and freedom fighter lost their lives.
• Many people were forced into reserves and detention camps where they suffered harsh treatments and bad living conditions.
• It created fear and worries of being killed especially in the central province where most fighting took place.
• MauMau forced the British to speed up independence to other colonies e.g. Tanganyika.
• It brought high costs amounting to pounds 50,000 to Kenya colonial government and the British as underground movement in Nairobi in 1946.

The MauMau group was annoyed by slow pace of constitutional change and the settler declaration in 1950 that “we are here to stay and all races must accept that and all it implies”.

Aims of Mau Mau Movement

1. To kill all Europeans and Africans who support them.

2. To bring Kenya independence as soon as possible.

3. To speed up writing of a just constitution.

4. Ending alienation among the Kikuyu.

Participants in MauMau Movement

1. Leaders – Waruhiu Itote – General China, Dedan Kimathi, Jomo Kenyatta,Sanley Mthenge and Musa Mwariama

2. Kikuyu waged laborers, ex-soldiers from WWII and other dissatisfied groups.

Problems / Obstacles that Hindered the Struggle for Independence in Kenya

1. Settlers opposition Nationalistic struggle; settlers opposed nationalistic struggles because they feared that once Kenya became Independent, Africans would grab their land.

2. Tribalism among the Africans divided Africans in the fight for independence. Political parties such as KANU and KADU were formed in tribal basis.

3. Personality clashes between leaders in some political parties.

Kenyan African Union leader Jomo Kenyatta with the official document of independence in Nairobi on December 13, 1963

DECOLONISATION THROUGH REVOLUTION

Revolution is the process of removing the existing government . OR Is a discontented reaction through violence exercised by the majority of the country population inorder to gain recognition or reform when legal and moderate means of political or social change fail. The known African revolutions are:

1. The Zanzibar Revolution of 1964 led by John Titto Okello,

2. The Egypt Revolution of 1952 led by Gamal Abdel Nasser.

Before that there were associations which did not press for independence but welfare of different races that lives in the Island. Associations before Mid 1950 were based on races e.g.

1. Arab Association was formed by Arab rich families against the British to press for compensation to the Arab slave owners after abolition of slave trade.

2. Africans Association formed in 1934, it was affiliated to Tanganyika association.

3. Shiraz Association formed in 1939 in Pemba to speak for African population like Timbuktu, Hamidu and Pemba.

4. The Indian Association.

ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION

After 1955 the people of Zanzibar formed political parties to struggle for independence. This was due to economic hardship and crisis in marketing cloves after WWII and colonial exploitation.

The Political Parties that were Formed during Struggles for Independence were;

1. Zanzibar Nationalist party (Z.N.P) formed out of Arab association by Sheikh Al Mahsin Barwan 1955. It demanded Multiracial Zanzibar in order to get support from the Africans majority but in principal it served the Arab Minority.

2. Afro –Shiraz party (A.S.P) it was formed out of African association and Shiraz association in 1957. Sheikh Aman Karume was the chairperson and Thabit Kombo was a secretary. It was a racial party because it was supported by Africans from Zanzibar and mainland.

3. Zanzibar and Pemba People’s Party (Z.P.P.P) was formed in 1959 by Shiraz racial group that had conflict with people of Mainland origin and ASP. It was formed by Mohamed Shante and Musa from Pemba and Tajo from Zanzibar.

4. UMMA Party; formed in 1963 by Abdurrahman Mohamed Babu, after splitting from Z.N.P.

The Zanzibar Revolution

Zanzibar revolution was a complete overthrow of the Arab government by the Africans who were subjected to it. It was a fundamental alteration of principle and practices of Arab Sultan government by the African people. The Revolution was organized by the ASP under sheikh Aman Karume with the support from Umma party under Mohamed Babu in 12 Jan 1964. The group of armed people who physically took part in revolution was led by John Okelo, a Lango young man from Uganda.

This was secretary of A.S.P young wing in Pemba. The group attacked the new government and Sultan by surprise. It succeed to capture the police amour in Ziwan then radio station, custrus, airports, post office, hospital and the prison at Mazarin by using knives, axes, hammers, bows and arrows. The armed men got guns after capturing the police station. The sultan escaped to Mombasa and many officials were killed.

Mohamed Shamte went into exile in Arabian. The revolution was successful in Sunday morning 12 Jan 1964, the revolution government was set up with Karume as the president and Hanya the Vice president, Babu and others Asp members were ministers of the new government.

Aims of Revolution

1. To adjust social and economic inequalities between the African Majority and the Arab Minority.

2. To remove Sultan domination over Africans in Zanzibar.

3. To eradicate British colonial interest and destroy capitalism in Zanzibar.

4. To bring socialism in this there will be no exploitation of man by man.

Causes of Revolution

Zanzibar attained its independence in Dec. 1963 from the British. Africans under ASP-(Afro Shiraz Party) recognized that independence granted in 1963 was a way for Arabs. Africans had still to struggle to win Independence. This is war forced Revolution in Jan 12 1964.

1. Exploitation of Africans by the Arab’s government, Africans were dissatisfied by Arabs Mass exploitation so they decided to overthrow the government.

2. Economic difficulties caused by the World wide drop in price of cloves, This made government to reduce expenditure on social service, schools were closed, teachers became unemployed and medical facilities were cut down. This gave rise to group of unemployed who were suffering peasants to join and over throw the government.

3. Historical differences and grievances between Arabs and Africans in Zanzibar, since the establishment of Arab administration and clove plantation in Zanzibar by Seyyid Said. Since then the relation between Arabs and Africans determinate Arabs made Africans slaves. So Africans brought revolution against this domination.

4. Land alienation problem, Arabs owned large portion of fertile land and employed Africans as labours in cloves and coconut plantations. The Africans became helpless peasant, Fisher men and squatter in Arab farms. This facilitated revolution.

5. Monopolization of trade by the foreigners i.e. Asians monopolized commercial life in Zanzibar thus made people to fight.

6. British colonial legacy, The British left the Arabs to dominate all key sectors because they were their friend and puppets. Africans were less favored in employment opportunities example in civil services etc.

7. The role of John Okello, he mobilized people to do surprise attack and maintain secrecy.

8. The election result of 1961 and 1963, These elections were not fairly conducted on the side ASP. The Africans were not satisfied with these elections which gave power to Arab Minority hence they decided to overthrow the government.

9. Dictatorship of Mohamed Shamte, The government surprised the political right of Africans. E.g. Vigul to freedom of association.

10. Discrimination of Africans by the Arabs, Africans were not treated equally with the Arabs.

Benefits of Zanzibar Revolution

1. The Africans who had lost their land got it back. The government nationalized plantations and distributed among Africans to grow crops.

2. The government built schools and colleges to provide educated freely up to university level.

3. The government promoted peoples’ participation in government, hash ranking jobs which were held by the Arabs were given to Africans. To date the head of government is African.

4. The government built good houses in different areas and distributed them to people freely; they were built in Uelen, Chakechake, and Mkwajuni.

5. Transport; Government brought ships like MV Mapinduzi, MV Maendeleo to provide transport to the people, also government constructed roads to improve means of transport.

6. Before revolution, people of Zanzibar were known as citizen of Sultan but after revolution people were given citizenship of Zanzibar.

7. The union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar 26 April, 1964. Strengths of the Zanzibar Revolution

8. It removed the colonial regime from power by force

9. It managed to adjust the social and economic inequalities in African country

10. It manage to uphold the African dignity

11. It managed to bring African independence

12. It promoted unity and solidarity among the Africans

Weaknesses of Decolonization through Revolution

1.Loss of lives during revolution process some people loose lives this is due to the use of dangerous weapons during the struggle that resulted to bloodshed.

2. Destruction of properties, such as infrastructures like offices and houses.

3. Fear and insecurity

4. Low level of consciousness and political awareness

5. Lack of clear political structures for movement organization.

6. Lack of patriotism

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. How has the membership in the Non-aligned movement helped independent African countries? (NECTA-2000)

2. Identify the external and internal forces which made Namibia to be the last country to eradicate colonialism in Africa. (NECTA-2000)

3. The independence of Tanganyika in 1961 was inevitable development given the nature of the colonial state and the global situation that existed after 1945. How far is this true? (substantiate) (NECTA-2002)

4. Show extent to which the people of Zanzibar has benefited from the 1964 Zanzibar revolution (NECTA-2002)

5. Explain the methods that were employed by the black society in South Africa in the struggle for their liberation (NECTA-2004)

76. Why did the Portuguese colonies in Africa engage in armed struggle to liberate themselves? (NECTA-2005)

7. Show the contribution made by independent churches and early welfare association towards the development of modern nationalism in Africa (NECTA-2006)

8.Explain the roles of welfare associations, Religious movements and cooperative societies in the struggle for independence in East Africa (NECTA-2007)

9. Discuss the roles played by the nationalistic parties in the struggle for independence in Africa (NECTA-2008)

10. Analyse the problem which faced Uganda during the nationalistic struggles (NECTA-2008)

11. Examine the factors for nationalism in Africa after the second World war (NECTA-2009)

12. Elaborate six ways in which the Zanzibar revolution brought positive changes in the living conditions for the people of Isles (NECTA-2011)

13. “The independence of Ghana of 1957 strengthened the struggle for independence of other African states” Justify by giving six relevant points. (NECTA-2011)

14. With concrete examples from various parts of Africa, assess eight factors that determined the forms of decolonization in Africa (NECTA-2012)

15. Examine six factors which enabled Tanganyika to attain independence earlier than Kenya (NECTA-2014)

16. Why Mozambique attained her independence through armed struggle? (Give six points) (NECTA-2016)

17. Examine six problems encountered by the Africans during mass nationalism in Africa (NECTA-2016)

18. The independence of Tanganyika was inevitable development due to internal situations which existed by 1961. Discuss by six points. (MBEYA MOCK-2013)

19. Show the contribution made by independent churches and welfare associations towards the development of modern nationalism in Africa. Give six points to support your answer. (TAHOSA WZ, 2015)

20. The independence of Tanganyika in 1961 was an inevitable development given the nature of the colonial state and the global situation that existed after 1945. How far is this true? Substantiate by giving eight points. (MBEYA PRE-NECTA-2016)

21. “FRELIMO, PALGC, MPLA and UNITA were political parties formed for attaining independence in the former Portuguese colonies in Africa.” Explain why the government engaged in guerilla warfare (Six points only). (MBEYA MOCK-2015)

22. Explain five roles of the welfare Association and religious movements in the struggle for independence in East Africa. (MBEYA MOCK- 2012)