PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES TO NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES TO NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Overview

Environmental resources (natural resources) are the materials that occur naturally in the environment  and  they  have  use  value  naturally  or  after  being  subject  to  certain  degree modification or  process.  They  are  sources  of  raw  materials  used  by  the  society (McKinney  and  Schoch,  1996).

On the other hand Waugh (1995) defined natural resources as features which are needed and used by people. Literally the term resources is synonymous  to  natural  resources,  some  individuals  broaden  the  meaning  to  even accommodate human resources.

These materials include all types of matter and energy that are used to build and run society such as soil, minerals, water, coal and all other naturally occurring materials. Materials that have been located and  can  profitably  be  extracted  at  the  present  market  price  form  a  subset  of  natural resource  termed  Reserves.  The resources are exploitable under current economic and technological conditions. The materials that have been located but cannot be extracted profitably at the present time are simply called resources which are as good as undiscovered raw materials.

These are tangible and non- tangible elements of the bio-physical environment necessary for the production of certain basic commodities or necessary for the livelihoods of human beings. They consist of all things that do not fall under man- made creations, thus what we see around us that take the course without the interventions of human beings is what would account as natural resources. A natural resource should be of a good quality and able to be transformed into values that satisfy human needs.

They include the components of the Mother Nature like: Land / Soil, Water, Air, Minerals/ Precious Stones, Forests / Vegetation, Wildlife/ Animals.

Natural resources are also considered as commodities which are valuable and they occur in nature and can be used to create wealth. Therefore;  a commodity becomes a natural resource when a primary activity associated with it is extraction or purification.

Resources

Refer to all means of satisfying human needs at a given time and place. Resources include; Air, Land, Water, Minerals, Forests, Wildlife, Living things including human beings, Non-living things etc. Are means of attaining individual or social welfare and they vary over time and space. They are the attribute of the environment appraised by man to have value within the social and economic constraints.

How does a resource become a resource?

Elements of the environment become resources when human beings appraise them to have values and these values depend on :-

·                     Human needs and desires

·                     Socio - Cultural

·                     Economic                                       Conditions

·                     Political                                             

·                     Biological

This means that, to make an element of the environment to be a resource, man has to employ his/ her technological and organizational abilities. His / her actions to make the elements of the environment to be resources will be constrained by:-

v    Ecological resistances- which demand that a harmonious equilibrium should be maintained when exploiting the resources available in the environment. This means that, whenever you utilize resources, you must not deplete them; therefore, there is a need to balance between exploitation and regeneration/reproduction of natural resources.

Exploitation of non- renewable resources should consider the developmental aspect of the country and its exploitation should be in a way that is friendly to the environmental ecosystems. The renewable resources must be utilized without damaging their capacity to regenerate themselves.

The decision to use a resource and the rate of resource exploitation depends on the Supply and Demand.

Resources Exploitation Rate

Quantity of Resources/Units

S

D

Equilibrium

CATEGORIES OF NATURAL RESOURCES 

-                      Natural resources are generally classified into three categories (this is according to abundance and availability)

i.      Continuous natural resources

ii.      Renewable natural resources

iii.      Non- renewable natural  resources

i.        Continuous Natural Resources

These are resources which continue to be available and cannot be degraded even with gross mismanagement. Example: Wind, Gravity, Geo- thermal energy (heat energy from ground water circulating beneath the earth’s crust).

Note: Solar energy: belongs in this group though its reception can be affected by atmospheric pollution.

ii.                  Renewable Natural Resources

These are resources that can be replaced within few humans generation. These resources have ability to replenish themselves after use.  These are resources which are capable of natural regeneration into useful condition within a time span. These resources are potentially renewable and could be indefinitely available provided that their capacity to regenerate is not damaged by natural catastrophe or human beings.

Once these renewable resources are degraded beyond a certain critical point, they may not recover thereby become non- renewable resources.

Renewable resources are classified into:-

·   Living/biotic renewable resources such as ; Plants, Fish, Wildlife etc

·      Non living/abiotic renewable resources such as; Soils, Air etc

iii.                Non Renewable Resources / Stock resources

These are the resources that cannot replenish themselves within a few human generations.

The phrase ‘few human generations’ here is very essential because some resources are replaceable over a very long geologic time scales.  For example oil, soil, coal and some

metallic  mineral  deposits  may  form  again  if  we  wait for  thousands  to  hundreds  of millions of years. However, these rates of renewal are so many thousands of times slower than the rates of use that, for all intents, they are nonrenewable on a human time scale.

These resources are available in finite/ limited quantities or their rate of renewal is so slow that they may be regarded as available in a fixed quantities. These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored.

The concept of renewability is sometimes blurred. Very old ground water in desserts may

take  centuries  or  even  many  years  to  replace  themselves,  while  ground  water  in  rainy tropical  areas  may  be  replaced  in  a  few  days.  Thus deep ground water in desserts is sometimes termed ‘fossil ground water’ which is in a way non-renewable resource.

NOTE: The major concern of the earth as whole currently is to switch from the use of non-renewable resources to use of more environmental friendly renewable resources i.e

use  of  wind  energy  as  opposed  to  fossil  energy  which  is  so  unfriendly  into  the environment. Their use therefore pollute environment. Since  non-renewable  resources  have  time  limit  in  terms  of  their  use,  prices  tend  to fluctuate a great deal and hence destabilizing many economic processes.

Note :- ANOTHER WAY OF CLASSIFYING THE NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources can be classified according to their :-

a.         Chemical Nature

i.           Inorganic resources:- Air, water, metallic minerals

ii.         Organic resources:- plants, animals, micro-organisms

iii.       Mixed resources:- soils

b.   Abundance and Availability

i.           Inexhaustible/Renewable

ii.         Exhaustible/Non renewable

iii.       Continuous

c.          Distribution

i.           National resources; Confined to national boundaries e.g. Minerals, land (soil)

ii.         Multinational resources; Shared by more than one nation e.g. some rivers, lakes, migratory animals.

iii.       International resource; Shared by all nations e.g. air, solar energy.

Another way of describing Natural Resources include:

a.Geological resources

These include –Minerals, Oils, Gas, Rocks

b.      Hydro-geological resources

Example; -Underground water, Surface water, Ice

c. Atmospheric resources

For example; -Air, Sunlight, Rainfall and its pattern

d.      Edaphic resources

Example; -Soils, Vast biological wealth in the soil (fertility)/elements /nutrients

e.       Forest resources

These are such as Vegetation/ plants and their products

f. Marine and aquatic resources

                    Example; -Plants, animals, and minerals in marine areas.

g.Animal resources

For example; -Wild animals, Domesticated animals

h.      Microbial resources

-Different types of microbes (microscopic organisms)

(c) NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Natural resource management is a concept that encamp wise use of natural resources i.e. use that does not compromise the quality of the resources. Such a use ensures that yield and quality of resources in question are not compromised in course of their use. When resources are used caution should be taken not to degrade the same since some resources are  non-elastic  (cannot  replenish  ones  exhausted),  ones  exhausted  they  are  gone. Resources should be well timed in terms of conservation to avoid the risk of overuse and hence exhaustion which equal to disappearance on human time scale.

Natural Resources management also refers to a process of decision making whereby natural resources are allocated over space and time to meet certain needs, desires or aspiration of man/ human being in particular society. It is the process of decision making that involves the exploitation of natural resources overtime and space in a particular society/ country with respect to needs and desires of the members of the country. This is done within the frame work of man’s technological innovations, political and social institutions, legal, administrative arrangements.

Each society / country has its own rules and regulations which have to be observed during decision making for natural resources management.

In our modern societies we have several policies and legislations governing resources use.

Therefore, decision making for natural resources use should abide to the policies and legislations of the society concerned.

- The exploitation of any resource depends on the technological framework of the society or country.

For instance, many rural dwellers depend on fuel wood as the source of energy, but with change in technology, they may adopt other sources like electricity, use of stoves, and gases.

       Example; In Kilimanjaro Rural Area, Kagera Rural Areas, Mbeya Rural Areas etc

-    Natural resources management is considered as the New Observation/ approach:

Why Considered as New Observation?

1.   It emphasizes on Rationality in the utilization of natural resources.

i.e. - Utilizing while thinking on the future

-    Ability to reasons (logical thinking) for the sustainable use of the resources available, rather than being governed solely by instinct and personal appetite/ preference.

2. It emphasizes on Ethics over economics when utilizing the natural resources 

- This means that we should   not aim at making profit only, but the quality of resources to be reserved for future use.

-    Think of the sustainable use of natural resources through abiding to the principle and standards set (policies, laws) for N.R use.

3.   It emphasizes on Ecological conservation over Engineering activities

-       We have to use the resources within the ecological limitations posed by the environment in a way that we do not deplete the available resources.

Ecology: study of the relationships between living organisms and their interaction with the environment. The ecological aspect of the environment should not be disturbed unnecessarily due to application of science and technology in designing various infrastructures/ things unless otherwise, example; Construction, use of machines etc.

4.   It emphasizes on involvement of strategies and Legislations or Acts to achieve certain objectives for the betterment of all people in the society/ country. The strategies, laws and acts are changing over time and place, therefore, NRM is considered to be a new observation

5. Resources management emphasizes on the protection of environmental quality and its enhancement (i.e. the natural resources existing in the environment).

Therefore, the strategies designed aim at promoting wise exploitation and restoration of resources (utilization and conservation). We need to make serious attempts to use natural resources in an efficient manner, or else they would be depleted as the result of careless use of the Resources.

The seriousness of the problem can be understood from the words of one of the American President (Theodore   Roosevelt; 26th President in 1900’s) that:-

“…The conservation of natural resources is fundamental problem, unless we solve that problem, it will avail / help us little to solve all others…”

Resources value

Various  values  are  ascribed  to  the  resources  that  occur  in  the  environment.  The care given to any environmental resource is subjective to the value that the resource users put on such a resource.

For example, huge trees and forests in some villages in Tanzania are highly valued for their local religious functions they play. The communities in which such trees or forests occur accord them maximum care.

The  values  are  drivers  of  conservation  because  these  values  force  the individuals to aspire for longevity of the resources concerned.

In most cases individuals refers to only economic benefits when looking at the value of environmental resources. There are some other values that are attached to environmental resources summing up to five. Sometimes these are referred to as five E’s as explained below;

i.  Ethical value referred to as Intrinsic value

This is the value of resource unto itself, regardless of its value to humans. This justifies existence of mountain scenery, worm in the wastes etc. If these resources have a right of

existing,  then  high  intrinsic  value  should  be  ascribed  to  them.  Intrinsic values are environmental oriented.  The rest of the E’s are referred to as extrinsic values.

The extrinsic values are the ones which are external to resources own right to exist, refer instead to the resource’s ability to provide something for human beings. Such values are anthropocentric (human centered). Extrinsic values are more utilitarian or practical, than intrinsic values and therefore tend to be more widely discussed in political and economic debates on resource management.

ii. Esthetic value (Aesthetic value)

This is the value of resource in making the world more beautiful, more appealing to the senses and generally more pleasant. The value one place on a mountain hike in the cool morning air is an example. Some people place no value to this and would pay northing for it while others find it indispensable.

iii. Emotional values

This is the value resource beyond sensory enjoyment. Some people for example develop very strong emotional bonds to certain natural areas or certain animal or plant species.

This is sometimes called sense of a ‘‘place’’. Many psychologists consider nature to be important for mental health, especially children.

iv. Economic value

This  is  type  of  value  involved  with  tangible  products  that  can  be  bought  or  sold.  For example food, timber, energy etc. Society needs to  focus more on long term economic values, which actually provide more income over the long run. The value of resources for tourism, native fruits, or other sustainable products is ultimately much  greater than the value of their destructive uses.

v.Environmental service values

This  is  the  value  of  resources  in  providing  intangible  services  that  allow  humans  (and other life) to exist on earth. Plants help to purify air, produce oxygen and plant roots and soil microbes purify water.

Some people put all the five values on all environmental resources. Others put different values on resources like beach etc.

Logging, mining and other types of harvesting that destroy the resources are called direct values. Most environmental problems arise when the resources are appreciated for only their direct value. Placing only ‘‘direct’’ short term economic value on natural resources artificially ‘‘discount’’ their true value to society and to the future generations.

Environmental service, emotional, esthetic and ethical values are referred to us indirect

values,  meaning  that  they  are  in  ways  that  do  not  involve  direct  harvesting  or  other destruction  of  the  resources.  More  sustainable  uses of  resources,  such  as  extractive forestry  and  ecotourism,  will  be  encouraged  and  rewarded.  As long as  only  short  term

values  are  considered,  overuse  and  exploitation  will  be  encouraged  and  rewarded.

Incumbent in the resource utilization is  sustainability.  Thus most often environmental natural resource managers tend to stress on sustainable utilization of resources. This is as crucial to natural resources as it ensures longevity and persistent quality for generations who depend on resource in question.

APPROACHES TO NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

-                      The process towards natural resources management requires several approaches including:-

i.                        Economic approach

ii.                        Legal approach

iii.                        Institutional approach

iv.                        Administrative approach

v.                        Pedagogic approach

vi.                        Ecosystem approach

i.                    Economic Approach

-                      This is one of the approaches used in natural resources management and it is the most common among others. It is all about the use of the following issues:

a)                  Applying Taxation so as to reduce the use of such a resource; example tax imposition to; charcoal making, fishing, small scale mining etc.

b)                 The use of Polluter pays Principle (PPP)

-                      This requires one to pay the real cost of pollution that he / she is causing to the environment due to resources exploitation.

-                      The polluter pays principle is the commonly accepted practice that those who produce pollution should bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health or the environment.

Example: A factory that produces a potentially poisonous substance as byproducts of its activities is usually held responsible for its safe disposal.

c)                  Applying user fees Principle

-                      This requires one to pay the user fees that have been calculated and set according to the prevailing standards.

-                      The user is required to pay the fees for the use of a particular resource in a specified time. This reduces high pressure over resources exploitation.

d)                 Benefit sharing Principle

-                      This involves preventing people from using some reserved areas like forests, national parks, game reserves etc, and at the end of the day you share the benefits obtained from such reservation.

e)                  The use of Permit System

-                      This needs the user to get the permit from the recognized institution/ ministry before using a certain resource.

-                      This means that the resources concerned are restricted towards a random use/ exploitation unless the user gets the valid permit from the recognized authority.

f)                   Conservation System

-                      This is all about convincing people to do away with the use of a certain resource in a specified time under the name of conservation for future benefits.

ii.                  Administrative Approach

- This is all about the use of ministry/ ministries and other organs in environmental resources protection and Natural resources management.

For example: in Tanzania, this involves the use of the Ministry of Environment which is in the office of the vice- President. It also touches; Ministry of energy and minerals/natural resources, Ministry of water and irrigation, ministry of livestock development and fisheries, National environmental management council (NEMC) which established as an institution/ organ for environmental management in Tanzania, etc

- In this approach, therefore, there is the need to establish the Ministry / ministries in which all environmental / natural resources management issues are delt upon. Different organs can also be established to facilitate the monitoring and implementation of environmental guidelines and natural resources management.

iii.                Pedagogic approach

Pedagogy simply means the science or art of teaching/ providing education using the specified methods/ procedures. It is concerning with environmental education provision and environmental awareness creation to the people.

- It entails the use of SEMINARS and WWORKSHOPS to discuss the environmental resources management. Also through: Classroom teaching/ curriculum, Conference, Public meetings etc

iv.                Legal Approach

- This is all about the use of LAWS and BY-LAWS to guide natural resources use thereby conserving them (natural resources).

- It involves the use of Laws made and accepted to guide the natural resources exploitation.

v.                   Institutional Approach

- This is all about the natural resources management regimes. It is about

v           Accessibility

v           Utilization

v           Ownership

-The Natural resources management regimes include;

a.                                                Common property

b.                                                Public / state property

c.                                                Private property

d.                                               Open access property

vi. Ecosystem Approach

- It is also known as Ecological management it refer to the holistic view of the environmental components and the inter- relationships among them (components)

-It is one of the new ways/ approaches of managing natural resources that takes into account the entire ecosystem (Ecosystem; A community of living organisms; plants, animals, and microbes; in conjunction with non living organisms interacting/linked to each other in the environment)

-It balances recreational use, economic development and conservation of natural resources in a way that all the needs are met in a sustainable manner.

-It integrates the scientific knowledge of ecological relationships within a complex socio- economic and Political frameworks towards the general goal of protecting the native ecosystems integrate over the longtime.

-It is the integration of ecological, economic, and social concerns towards the management of biological and physical systems in order to safeguard the long term ecological sustainability, natural diversity and production.  i.e. It deals with 3 concerns namely:

a)                  Ecological concerns

b)                  Economic concerns

c)                  Social concerns

a.                  Ecological Concerns

-Ecology refers to the relationship of the environmental organism and their environment including human beings.

This means that when planning for the better natural resources management so as to satisfy the  ecological concerns, these is a need to consider human beings, environment and other Organisms

You have to take into account that an interaction of several components within the bio- physical environment can tell much on the management or sustainability of the mentioned components.

For example:

·                     Interaction between human beings and the environment can lead to either Positive or Negative impacts to the natural resources found in the environment.

Therefore, there is a need for scientific ecological knowledge on the relationship human beings/ living organisms and the environment before planning for natural resources management.

b.                  Economic Concerns

This means that the production and management of material wealth like farming, industry and other activities should balance with the ecological overview/ aspect of the environment.

Simply, it means that “ the rate of economic exploitation of resources, should balance with the natural resources available in the environment”

c.                   Social Concerns

This is all about the people living together in communities, human history (lifestyles), population trends, past and future activities (e.g. Agricultural trends), the Natural resources trends, conflicts between NR. User’s tec.

Therefore, for better natural resources management we look critically at the mentioned aspects of social concerns.

Both social and economic  concerns are mostly not in favor of the ecological concerns because: they degrade  the environment(economic activities and social / aspect)

They deplete the Natural resources (Renewable and Non Renewable Resources).

The ecosystem approach requires the natural resource management to be observed beyond the observable factors at the present time.

It is a more away from the approach of serving the endangered species at the time when they are at brink of crisis to conservation and management of ecosystems at all times.

PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Under this, we shall have a critical look at the Ecological Principles of Natural Resources Management.

Ecological principles of NRM include all the principles that are related to land use and the resources found on it (Land)

It is obvious that human activities have a great impact on the environment and its resources and therefore, are the major source of change of land and its resources. This change/transformation affects the ecological and physical systems. Human activities have great impact on the environment, therefore, are the major source of change of land. This change/transformation affects the ecological systems and physical systems.

Human activities affects the earth’s efficiency to provide the goods and services. In most cases the potential ecological consequences are not taken into consideration when planning for natural resources management.

In the use of resources, we usually have conflicting consequences and goals; example; Mining and land, agriculture and forestry, fishing and water quality/quantity of fish etc

Therefore, the critical challenge for land use and resources management involves reconciling the conflicting uses and goals.

Ecological Principles are usually used in planning for Natural resources management to meet the challenges for conflicting land/resources use, hence reducing the conflicting consequences as the result of land use and resources exploitation.

The ecological principles help us to understand the limitations and potentials offered by the environment hence proper planning for natural resources management.

Therefore, the ecological Principles of Natural Resources Management include:

i) The Landscape Principle

                           ii) Species principle

                           iii) Time Principle

iv) Place Principle

                           v) Disturbance Principle

I. THE LANDSCAPE PRINCIPLE

A landscape; Is a broad area of land with different types of landforms, life forms, and all manner of things with regards to human activities.

In planning for natural resources management by using the landscape principle we should consider the land size, shape, quantity of resources, and spatial relationship of the land cover types.

Usually, the size, shape, and spatial relationship of the land cover types influence the dynamic of populations, communities and ecosystems. The kind of organisms that can exist in a particular area are limited by shape, size, and habitats across the landscape.

For the case of living organisms/resources, we are urged to consider their population trend, i.e.

o        Population Increase – Immigration and Natality

o        Population Decrease – Emigration and Mortality

Natality

Immigration

      Increase

Species Population

Mortality

Emigration

Decrease

A small area usually have less species compared to the large area. Human beings are also found within the landscape; their activities may fragment or even change the cover of the land. That is to say, they have both negative and positive impacts on the landscape.

 Example; When the landscape is fragmented to have small patches, this may reduce or   eliminate the population of organisms. Also may alter the ecosystem process (especially through clearing of Buffer zones, and Corridors.

Landscape fragmentation may result to positive effects; it may result to the increase in diversity of species in a particular area; For instance; Introduction of new species within an area i.e. edge effect.

With an edge effect, you may have organisms that prefer the disturbed area; these organisms may flow to the disturbed area thereby causing the increase of biodiversity to such area.

The large landscapes generally contain more species compared to the small ones. The better management, therefore, should include large patches; hence the larger the area the better the management.

II. DISTURBANCE PRINCIPLE

There are manmade and natural disturbances. The type, duration, and intensity of disturbance shaped the characteristics of the populations, communities, and ecosystem.

Whatever disturbances that occur, on the area may affect the community / they may lead to the following:

a.                   Changing the number and kinds of species.

b.                        Causing the losses of organic matter

c.                   Affecting the productivity of the land positively or negatively

d.                  Affecting the habitat structure

-                      Land use after the natural environment regimes and may initiate new disturbances like soil/ land degradation/ erosion etc.

Adjacent land use affects natural areas and the effects may be through the introduction of non- native land species that may also affect the resources in the environment.

The non- native land species may be exhaustive in nature and can dominate the area and lead to extinction of other native species.

Example: In Lake Victoria

*Introduction of spices to fight the hyacinths.

* Introduction of Nile perch.

We can usually minimize the man-made disturbances, but in most cases natural disturbances cannot be avoided.

E.g. storms, floods, volcanic eruptions, earth quakes etc.

The ecosystems can just adjust themselves wherever such disturbances occur; therefore whatever action taken to the natural disturbances should aim at preventing the impact  ( adaption  in the impacts).

III.             SPECIES PRINCIPLE

This principle emphasis on species diversity and focal species in the whole process of managing the resources.

Focal species are those that provide indication on how the resources can be managed.

*species diversity

The general consideration is put towards the number kinds of species in a particular area.

The land with more species is more productive than that with few species. This means that whatever the disturbances will take place/ occur; in the area with many species, not all species will die/ migrate; some will survive.

Therefore, if you want to conserve the land / environment you need to maintain many but considerate species.

Most of the human activities lower the number of environmental species/ resources diversity, therefore, there is a need to diversify the species within the environment.

Note: species principle implies that: in planning for management and use of resources we need to look at the number and kinds of species (diversity), and the indications provided by the focal species around the area.

Principle (man and most important)

Facial species:

The species that can provide the indication on how the resources can be managed

Keystone species (umbrella and link species

The species (plants or animals) that play a unique or crucial role in the way the ecosystem functions.

They include:

·                     Indicators

·                     Ecological engineers

Indicators

Provide the management indication

Tell the status of other resources E.g. Mangrove plants- wet area

Can be used/ managed for water related activities e.g. irrigation, fishing etc

Ecological engineers

These include small animals which could alter the ecological habitats thereby modify the opportunities for other species. E.g. rodents; termites etc

IV.              TIME PRINCIPLE

When planning for the management and use of resources in the environment we need to consider   diverse time scales for which ecosystems pass through.

Usually resources/ ecosystem change with time, ie

·                     Seasonal changes

·                     Year to year changes

·                     Succesional changes (plant succession - the way plants come up)

Human activities may have a great role in altering the ecosystems / resources with regards to time.

When you look at a particular ecosystem in terms of species composition, structure and the state, is always the function of the events that took place in the past (overtime)

What you see may not necessarily reveal/ show the prevailing conditions, but they may be prevailing conditions.

Some events may take place today but their effects may be seen much later.

For instance; the impacts due to random land use may be experienced after a longtime hence, the current land uses impact influence the future land uses.

V.                 THE PLACE PRINCIPLE

Normally any area or location has its own local environment.

The local environment is the result of the variation of several factors like:

o        Soils

o        Climate

o        Hydrology

o        Biotic interactions etc

o        Living organisms

The local environment influence the ecological processes, abundance and distribution of species in a particular area.

Usually the local environmental conditions lead to the natural occurrence of specific ecosystems structure; only those species which are adapted to the environmental constraints will strive / fight to stay in that particular area.

Therefore: the unique conditions of a place may be more important for conservation/ management. Area with endemic species (species found within a particular area) are always unique and they need to be conserved.

The land use which can’t be maintained within the constraints of the environment should be avoided because it can lead to the degradation of the environment.

Conclusion:

Generally the ecological principles of NRM provide the basic for specifying and understanding of the ecological concerns for ecosystem use. They are the checklists for decision making in the whole process of natural resources management.

Resources Utilization

Resource utilization needs to be addressed thoroughly because even ubiquitous resources may quickly go extinct if misused. Uncontrolled use of natural resource may result into wastage  of  the  same  resource  and  the  population  that  depends  on  it  may  easily  fall  in scarcity  of  resources.  Key  issue  that  is  worth  to  note  and  that  needs  consideration  in resource utilization is increase in longevity of resource use. The resource should be used for  the  longest  time  possible  without  compromising  its  quality  i.e  sustainable  resource use.

Sustainable Resource Utilization

Sustainable resource utilization means resource use process that bears within it elements of perpetual aspects  of  the  same  resources.  Some  impacts  that  emanate  from  resource misuse  are  permanent  with  far  reaching  fatal  impacts.  With  sustainable  resource utilization  the  resource  use  by  the  present  generation  should  not  deny  the  right  for  the future generation to use the same resources. Hence sustainable resource utilization means utilization of resources rationally on the basis that they can support the present and future generations.

The major aim of sustainable resource utilization is to attain sustainable development in which  resources  are  used  in  solving  the  current  problems  without  jeopardizing  the possibility  for  the  future  generation  to  exist.  In other words sustainable utilization  of resources  is  the  utilization  of  resources  while  observing  resource  management  and conservation principles for the resources to last longer.

The basic resources of the world that are likely to subject the earth into crisis unless they are  used  with  great  care  are  water,  air,  forests,  minerals,  agricultural  land,  special ecosystems and tourism resources. Below is a description of how some of these resources can be used to ensure longevity and maintain yield.

(i) Water resources

Water  must  be  considered  in  terms  of  quality,  quantity  and  accessibility.  For  instance

lakes,  rivers,  swamps,  underground  waters  are  necessary  to  support  population  and economic  development  of  the  people.  The  critical  shortage  of  water  inhibits  economic development and directly damage people as diseases  may erupt. Major economic sectors like transport, agriculture and industries depend on water at one point for proper function.

Sustainable utilization of water involves channeling and absorbing excess water, efficient

distribution  of  the  available  water,  avoiding  disposing  wastes  in  water  bodies  that

interfere  with  water  quality,  avoid  cultivation  along  river  banks  and  at  river  sources.

Water reservoirs should be constructed to tap rain water to avoid risk of shortage during dry period.

(ii) Minerals like iron ores

Minerals  like  copper,  tin,  mica;  diamond,  gold  etc. have  greater  contribution  towards

economic  development  hence  these  nonrenewable  resources  need  to  be  managed

properly. When managed properly mines will yield economic products for a long time.

Governments  and  companies  involved  in  mining  activities  should  have  proper

environmental  rehabilitation  projects,  like  revetment  of  the  soil,  planting  of  trees,

enacting  laws  and  regulations  to  reinforce  mining  companies  to  rehabilitate  land  when

mining activities ceases in a particular place.

(iii) Forests

Forests should be used with conservation mind because careless use of trees may lead to

their  disappearance.  There  should  be  proper  reforestation  programs  to  ensure  that

deforested  areas  are  rehabilitated.   Only  mature  trees  should  be  harvested.  Alternative

sources of energy should be sought to relieve forests of the pressure pressed to it by both

rural and urban population.

(iv) Land

When land is used especially in agriculture, care should be taken to maintain nutrients in

it.  When  nutrient  in  the  soil  decrease,  proper  fertilization  preferably  by  using  organic

fertilizers should be done. Cultivation in areas which are prone to soil erosion should be

properly  done  by  using  contours.  Proper  agronomic  practices  should  be  adhered  to  in

order to avoid land degradation in course of agricultural activities. Rotational cropping is

one of good agricultural practices that ensure safety to agricultural land.

(v) Air

Air  is  the  resource  that  is  available  everywhere  on earth.  Misuse  of  atmosphere  by

dumping  in  it  undesirable  gases,  has  led  to  major  environmental  problems  facing  the

world today. The problems range from global warming, acid rain to depletion of ozone

layer.  There  should  be  deliberate  efforts  to  ensure discharge  of  harmful  gases  such  as

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into the atmosphere.

Rational utilization of resources for economic purposes will ensure continuous use of the

same resource for a long time. On the other hand a  wasteful use of resources will result

into ill-impacts which will come back to community and harm it, soon or later.

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND STRATEGIES

RESOURCES DEGRADATION AND DEPLETION

Natural resource depletion is the sum of net forest depletion, energy depletion, and mineral depletion.

Net forest depletion is the unit resource rents times the excess of round wood harvest over natural growth.

Energy depletion is the ratio of the value of the stock of energy resources to the remaining reserve lifetime (capped at 25 years). It covers coal, crude oil, and natural gas.

Mineral depletion is the ratio of the value of the stock of mineral resources to the remaining reserve lifetime (capped at 25 years). It covers tin, gold, lead, zinc, iron, copper, nickel, silver, bauxite, and phosphat (World Bank, 2011) .

(Source: World Bank "The Changing Wealth of Nations: Measuring Sustainable Development in the New Millennium" 2011)

Resource Depletion

The pressure on the environment due to human activities has been greatly enhanced due to the  accelerated  use  and  depletion  of  natural  resources.  Given the finite  nature  of  all resources the ultimate aim is to achieve sustainable use of the natural capital. When the

rates  at  which  certain  resources  are  used  exceed  their  ability  to  renew  (replenish) themselves  these  resources  are  at  risk  of  exhaustion.  This is  simply  termed  resource depletion as it is further explained below. Principally there two basic inputs from the environment, namely matter and energy

Depletion of Matter

Matter resources  are  depleted  by  being  ‘‘lost’’  or  dispersed.  Ore deposits are usually

concentrated  deposits  of  minerals  that  are  normally found  in  dilute  form  in  the  earth’s crust. When the minerals are mined and processed metals are obtained they can be used to make cars  and  other  refined  products.  The  atoms  contained  in  the  minerals  may  be

dispersed  i.e  wearing  and  tearing  of  the  materials  or  lost  to  further  human  use  when wastes are disposed in landfills and elsewhere, theurban ore of a landfill may later be mined for its metal contents. Similarly rapid soil erosion depletes the soil not because the

nutrients  and  minerals  in  the  soil  are  destroyed,  but  because  the  soil  is  dispersed, ultimately into the oceans.

These  are  examples  of  nonrenewable  matter;  when  dispersed,  molecules  of  metals  and soils will stay dispersed unless much energy and money is used to concentrate them. In terms of renewable matter resources, dispersion still occurs such as when houses are built out of timber relatively quickly. The renewable resources are Oftenly biological resources that can be re-grown.

Depletion of Energy Resources

Energy has a one-way flow through society because it is transformed to unusable form ‘‘waste heat’’ when  used.  Energy  resources  are  therefore  depleted  when  they  are transformed this way. This is a key difference fromsome forms of ‘‘lost’’ matter, which

could  be  recollected  and  reconcentrated  if  cheap  energy  is  available.  In  contrast  ones

energy  is  transformed,  it  is  lost  forever;  waste  heat  can  never  be  reconcentrated.  For example when coal or oil is burnt to release their  chemical energy to drive engine that energy can never be reused.

It is because of the one way flow of energy that always an alternative form environmental

friendly  energy  which  is  ubiquitous  is  recommended  and  that  is  sun.  This  source  of renewable energy could potentially keep the societyrunning for many millions of years.

Examples  of  sun’s  energy  include  direct  solar  power,  biomass,  hydropower  and  wind power.

Bubble Pattern of Resource depletion

Unsustainable  use  of  many  resources  exhibits  a  bubble  pattern  of  depletion.  The  best

known  example  is  the  so  called  Hubbert’s  Bubble  of  oil  depletion.  King  Hubbert predicted  accurately  the  bubble  patterns  of  oil  depletion  in  the  United  States.  The assumptions  were  made  in  1950s  and  have  proven  to  be  strikingly  accurate.  U.S  oil production peaked in 1970 and has been declining since the richest reserves are steadily depleted.

The bubble pattern has two causes:  exponential exploitation and exponential depletion. Because both use and exhaustion are exponential, they tend to make mirror image. The exploitation,  side  of  the  bubble  is  exponential  because  resources  are  exploited  very quickly once society discovers their utility. The underlying cause of this exponential use is the exponential growth of human populations and  technology that uses the resources.

All  resources  on  the  earth  are  finite,  limits  to  growth  eventually  occur,  and  demand exceeds supply. At this stage, society usually tends to intensify its efforts to obtain more of  the  resources  through  further  exploration  and  increased  technological  applications. However  these  efforts  soon  usually  encounter  what  is  termed  Law  of  Diminishing

Return,  in  economics,  meaning  that  increasing  efforts  to  extract  resource  produce progressively  smaller  amounts/returns.  This  results into  depletion  side  of  the  bubble. Production declines exponentially because the most easily extracted concentrations of the resource become exhausted.

As supply of the resource decline, prices rise sometimes leading to unemployment and other  unpleasant  changes.  Historically  the  society  responds  to  the  increase  in  resource prices by switching to another resource. England switched from wood to coal as energy, when forests were decimated and more recently to oil because it is cheaper. The series of bubbles shown in England has often been repeated elsewhere and with other resources as societies have tended to switch from one unsustainable resource to another. The only way to break this ‘‘cycle of Unsustainable use’’ is to switch to sustainable uses.

What is Environment?

The word environment commands a very broad meaning. It includes air, land, water, and plant, animal life including human life together with the social, economic, recreational and cultural factors that influence the lives of human beings.

It also includes the building structures, machines or other devices made by man, any solids, liquids, gases, heat, sound, vibration or radiation resulting directly or indirectly from the activities of man and any part or combination of the fore-going and the inter- relationship between man and the mother nature.

Over the past hundred years, the terrestrial fresh water and marine environment have been declining.

Environmental degradation and resources depletion have escalated/ increased over the past three decades due to the cumulative impacts of rapid population growth, intensive agriculture, urbanization, industrialization etc.

·            Deforestation

·         Decline of biodiversity and marine resources

·         Water scarcity – especially clean safe water

·         Air pollution

·         Urbanization etc

The major reason for the adverse/ unfavorable environmental problems in Africa is POVERTY. (What is the relationship between poverty and environment?)  Poverty- environmental nexus.

However the main cause of  many environmental problems include:

·   Persistent economic sector               

·   Agricultural activities                      

·   Industrial activities                        

·   Mining activities etc

·   Population increase            

·   Constructional activities

It is also due to other sectoral policies which largely neglect and fail to avoid harmful impacts on the environment and natural resources base.

Generally, we can summarize the causes of environmental/ land degradation by using the DISASTER CRUNCH MODEL- developed by Blackie at all 1994, although these are some modifications.

            i.e.

Underlying cause’s     -Poverty

                                                                        -Population increase

                                                                        -Poor governance

                                                                        -Ignorance

                                                                        -Technological stagnation

Immediate cause (lack of)                               -Lack of income

                                                                        -Lack of literates society

                                                                        -Lack of democracy

                                                                        -Lack of technology

                                                                        -Lack of peace

Unsafe conditions                                           -Deforestation

                                                                        -Poor agricultural practices

                                                                        -Civil wars

                                                                        -Corruption etc

                                                     Land degradation                           As a disaster

THE KEY ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS / CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

1.                  Increased Food Insecurity

-                      This is as result of rapid population growth degradation of arable land and mismanagement of available water sources combined with poor economic policies to support food production.

-                      Due to such factors and other related ones, there have been the high rate of decreasing of sufficient and good quality of food needed to support the available number of population.

-                      The population growth has acted as the major cause of increased food insecurity;  and there have been a tremendous increase of population especially in developing countries.

For example:

·                     In 1650 year; - 550 million                   This is a double increase within 200years

·                     In 1850 year – 1100million

·                     1850 year – 1100 million                        This is five times within 159 years

·                     2009 year – 6790 million

If you look at the concept of doubling time, there have been a decrease of years for  (D.T)

                 e.g. 1930 – 2000million = 45 years

                       1975-    4000million= 35 years

2.      Deforestation

Cutting down of trees/ vegetation cover for various uses

-          African forests are shrinking

-          Most of the people use firewood as the energy source

-          Also, most of people’s livelihood depends on forests as well as land, leading to the increased deforestation.

Generally it is one the environmental challenges in Tanzania and developing countries at large.

E.g. -In Tanzania; about 10,000 ha. Of closed forests were being deforested annually between 1981 to 1985.

3.      Biodiversity  Depletion

The richness of African bio- diversity requires great protection and a sustainable use   that will ensure the income of those who depend upon such bio- diversity.

Therefore, there is a need to maximize bio diversity landscape protection. We need to give priority to biodiversity areas which are close to areas with high population density and to give balanced attention to such regions as arid and semi- arid.

4.         Water Scarcity

African’s fresh water problems are acute and worsening. It is one of the major stresses that face the human livelihoods.

Most of them arise from the poor management of water resources and sources, lack of financial resources required for sustainable development and efficient utilization of resources, absent of effective regional and basin development plans and shared management, and underestimation of the ground water potential to supplement irrigation and drinking water supplies.

Water scarcity: a condition in which the annual availability of fresh water is 1000 or less cubic meters per person.

IUCN (International union for conservation of natural) over 350 million people suffer from water scarcity.

5.            Coastal and Marine Resources Depletion.

There have been a very high pressure towards the coastal areas encroachment and use of marine resources in Lakes, oceans, seas

E.g. they include: mangroves, coral reefs, lagoons, coastal forests, fish stocks, sea cucumbers (overrate ) no back born –long.

Degradation of coastal and marine resources have been caused by increased population/ urbanization and over exploitation of resources coupled with mismanagement.

There is an urgent need for integrated coastal zone management to combat the problem.

6.   Air Pollution

Has now emerged as an environmental issue of concerns in most of major cities in Africa including Tanzania.

-             Regulatory measures and environmental standards need to be introduced to combat the problem.

Africans emissions of GHG- Green house gases remain modest compared to developed countries, despite the factor that it is modest, be regulated.

Globally, there have been an increasing rate of CO2   emissions into the air/ atmosphere.

E.g. 1900=280 ppm (Parts per Million).

                 1980=335 ppm

                 700= 380 ppm

The projection indicates that up to the year 2050 there will be about 400 ppm

About 90% of GHG emission is caused by the developed countries. The studies show that china and India also contribute a lot towards GHG emission.

E.g. china = 22%

Russia =5.24%

Canada = 1.90%

USA= 19.91%

Japan = 4.28%

UK = 1.84%

India = 5.50%

Germany = 2.69%

South Korea 1.72%

Source: UN, 2008

7.         Urbanization

The African urbanization rate is the highest in the world. This is resulting in urban environmental deterioration.

Most of the environmental problems in urban areas are inevitable consequences of urbanization (pollution, slums, eruption of diseases etc).

They can be resolved through efficient and effective urban management systems.

People have been moving in a very high rate from rural to urban areas  (rural- urban migration). This has been caused by “push” factors working in rural areas. (ie insecurity, poor health facilities, poor transport and comm., lack of electricity etc)

Beside the push factors of rural areas, there are, of course, the “pull” factors (working in urban areas):  like the glamour of big cities, good look – physical

Higher pay urban jobs etc

There is a challenge high population growth in urban cities- in developing countries                                    E.g. Dsm:                  1960  = 0.15 %                

                                    1981 = 0.9 %                       

                                    2000 = 4.6 %                           

Nairobi : 1950 = 0.14%

                 1979 = 0.83%

                 2000 = 5.3%

The proportion of people living in urban areas in DCS’s is increasing from now and then;

E.g. 1950=17%; 1985=31%; 2000 = 39%

1950

1955

2000

Africa

15%

29%

39%

Latin America

41%

69%

76%

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS/ CHALLENGES IN TANZANIA

Tanzania is one of the developing countries of the word, and we have already discussed in details the key environmental problems in the developing countries.

In summary the following are major six environmental problems in Tanzania (mostly in found rural and urban areas)

(a)    Land degradation

(b)   Lack of accessible good quality water

(c)    Environmental pollution

(d)   Loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity

(e)    Deforestation

All these are threatening the availability of natural resources found in the environment, hence the need of natural resources management.

It has been analyzed that;

(a)    Land degradation has contributed to the reduced productivity of soils in many parts of Tanzania.

(b)   Despite considerable national efforts, over half of the people in towns and in the country side do not have access to good quality water for washing, cooking, drinking and bathing.

(c)    Pollution in towns and country side is affecting the health of many people, and has lowered the productivity of the environment.

(d)   The loss habitats for wildlife is threatening the national heritage and creating an uncertain future for economic development.

(e)    The productivity of Lake, river, coastal, and marine waters is threatened by pollution and poor management.

(f)       Tanzania forest and woodland   heritage is being reduced year by year through clearance for agriculture, wood fuel, and for other demands.

POTENTIALS OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN TANZANIA

The lives of all Tanzania are connected to the environment.

E.g.  Our survival and survival of the future generation depends on the harmonious relationship with the natural resources in the environment. Tanzanians therefore, have no choice, but strive to manage the environment and its natural resources. The natural resources should be managed in a way that enhances the potential for growth and opportunity for sustainable development of present and future generations.

Environmental problems in Tanzania are real and not some one’s else problems.

The extraction of natural resources from the environment should not exceed the natural resource generation. When should note that, a health economy and a health environment go hand in hand; both are needed   for our survival and prosperity.

We are therefore called for the wise use of natural resources for betterment of the present and future generations.

THE GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES TO COMBAT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN TANZANIA

Tanzania is committed to sustainable development through long term and short term plans.

Environmental protection is a social and economic necessity; it is an integral component of sustainable development.

Satisfaction of basic needs is an environmental concern of relevant natural resources policy  and environmental policy.

The natural resources in the environment should be exploited with a great care and any developmental investment should be done in a sustainable manner.

The environment and its natural resources are the first victim of things like:

v    Acute poverty urbanization

v    Overgrazing

v    Deforestation

v    Mining

v    Overfishing

 Natural resources extraction must aim at eradicating poverty among the people through:

·                     Eradication of diseases

·                     Guaranteed food security

·                     Guaranteed shelter

·                     Guaranteed safe and clean water

·                     Guaranteed employment

·                     Guaranteed income generation.

At the same time, the natural resources extraction should consider the ecological concerns and the natural regeneration of resources.

The environmental conservation strategies in Tanzania can be explained as follows:

a.Historical Overview

1929:-formation of advisory committee on terrain after Dodoma conference.

1952:-formation of native authority ordinance.

The local authorities were given mandate to combat land degradation.

-Formation of other ordinances from time to time; e.g.

·                     National park ordinance

·                     Forestry ordinance

·                     Natural resources ordinance

·                     Grass fire control ordinance etc.

b.   Recent Efforts

1.                  Establishment of national, regional and district based programs and projects.

E.g.;

§ NEMC – established by an act of parliament no.19 of 1983

                           To provide advisory role to the government

§ HASHI (Shinyanga)

§ HESAWA (Lake Zone)

§ HADO (Dodoma)

§     KIGOMA- Rukwa integrated development program.

2.                  Promoting and sensitizing communities and individual participation as a strategy to invigorate (fill something with energy) environmental conservation and natural resources management.

3.                  Environmental awareness campaigns through media institutions (radio, TV, Press, Newspapers)

4.                  Establishment of community based organizations (CBO’S) to promote environmental conservation.

·                     HASHI

·                     SEMA

·                     HADO

5.                  Establishment of Non Governmental organizations (NGO’S) LAVEMP

6.                  Adoption of sector policies related with forest, mineral, wildlife, fisheries, agriculture and livestock; which actually put priority on conservation and management of resources and environment.

7.                  Subjecting the issues of environmental and resources conservation into the education curriculum/ learning programs and courses covered into high institutions.

-                      But: The Strategies were/ are not fully implemented due to the following:

1.                  Lack of good governance

2.                  Corruption/ embezzlement

3.                  Lack of mass education

4.                  Poverty

5.                  Social beliefs

6.                  Gender imbalance

7.                  Negligence  (leaders and natives)

8.                  Communication breakdown

9.                  Misconception; that resources are owned by the state.

10.              Incompetent leaders.

Natural Resources/ Environmental Management Options

Proper resource management is therefore based on recognition that less resource use can lead to long term economic benefits and recued environmental costs. Such management, while recognizing that some resource use is unavoidable thus seeks to minimize use where possible.

Resource management is encompassed with three basic options that can ensure minimum resource utilization; which are; Preservation, Conservation and Restoration.

i. Environmental Preservation

This refers to nonuse. A ‘‘preserved’’ national park or wilderness area is an ecosystem that is set aside and (in theory at least) protected in its pristine condition or natural state.

In this areas consumptive use of products are prohibited.

ii. Environmental Conservation

This is an attempt to minimize use of natural resource.  This can be attained through efficiency improvements, recycling  or  reuse  and  substitution  of  other  resources. Environmental conservation usually ensures longevity in resource utilization.  When environment is conserved the resources therein are conserved. Resource conservation is important as it;

(a) Slows depletion of resources

(b)  Reduces  pollution  by  slowing  flow  of  materials  and  energy  (throughput)  through society and

(c) Saves money for example burning less coal by increasing power plant’s efficiency not only saves coal but produces less acid rain and other forms of pollution.

iii. Environmental Restoration

This  is the  process  of  returning  a  degraded  resource  into  its  original  state.  The rapidly growing field of restoration ecology is attempting to return many ecosystems, such as tall grass degraded grasslands and wetlands into their original state. Mining activities in most cases  alter  the  nature  of  landscape  and  many  plants are  cleared  and  their  existence  is therefore  threatened.  After mining operations especially open cast mining deliberate efforts should be taken to restore the origin landscape i.e scenery of the place in question and its plant population

Environmental Restoration is the deliberate attempt to speed recovery of damaged areas. It ranges from practical and economic attempts to simply restore some productivity to degraded grazing lands, to the attempt to return full ecosystem function and structure in protected ecosystems. Restoration is needed virtually everywhere humans have been active past the hunter-gatherer stage. A third of the surface of the earth is afflicted with land degradation or desertification and this affects almost a billion people. Every year 6 million  an  additional  hectares  are  completely  lost  to  production  according  to  U.N. estimates  and  60%  of  the  rangeland,  60%  of  rain-fed croplands  and  30%  of  irrigated croplands are at risk. Protecting and restoring damaged lands requires an understanding of ecology, economics, psychology and culture.

Methods of Resource Conservation

The resources are well managed/conserved by three basic practices/methods namely; Efficiency, Recycling and substitution.

i.        Efficiency

Efficiency  improvement  is  generally  most  effective  and  economically  sound  because many technologies and  activities are wasteful  and inefficient. Efficiency improvements occur when the same task is accomplished with fewer resources.

Example, about two-thirds of the water used in irrigation is lost through evaporation. Using micro irrigation  where  water  is  carried  by  pipes  and  sprayed  through  small  holes  decreases water loss to less than 20%.

Inefficiency  in  resource  utilization  is  costly  to  the  economy  but  efficient  utilization  of resource results into enormous gains as it conserves resources like minerals and others.

Besides the economic savings, environmental saving from efficiency is also enormous.

Less depletion saves more resources for future generations. Less resource extracted means less degradation of  the  land.  Less  resource  use  as  well reduces  environmental  pollution  which  in  a  way  translates  into  resource  pollution.

ii. Resource reuse and Recycling

Reuse  occurs  when  the  same  resource  is  used  again  in  the  same  manner,  for  example refilling soda bottles. Recycling is more or less similar to reuse but the resource is not used in the same form.  With recycling the original materials are made into other

devices for  example  soda  bottles  may  be  remelted  to  make  new  bottles  or  other  glass containers. Reuse as efficiency, reduces resource depletion and pollution from resource extraction and use. Reuse/recycling is useful in reducing solid wastes. This further spares land that would be used as landfills for such solid wastes.

Recycling scheme begins with virgin resources which are the original resources being extracted. The recycling loop begins just before the purchased product is discarded; the discard is reprocessed into the same or perhaps another product. The loop is closed when someone buys a product containing recycled material. This slows depletion of virgin resources and reduces pollution in two basic ways.

Most  basic  it  reduces  the  amount  of  solid  wastes  that  would  have  been  discarded  into landfills  and  incinerators.  It further reduces wastes that  would  have  been  processed  by extraction of more virgin resources.

Advanced form of recycling is precycling. This is not actually recycling but conservation by increased efficiency, the same task is accomplished but fewer resources are used. For

example  reduce  of  packaging  materials  by  concentration  of  foods.  Concentrated foods require small package materials.

iv. Substitution

Substitution in terms of resources is the process whereby one resource is used instead of the other. Substitution can also help to reduce both depletion and pollution problems. It

helps  with  depletion  because  when  one  resource  is  being  depleted,  a  more  common substitute can be used at a cheaper price. For example aluminum a very common metal in

the  earth’s  crust  can  sometimes  be  substituted  for  much  rarer  and  more  expensive  in making  alloys,  equipments  and  other  uses.  Substitution reduces  pollution  when extraction,  processing  and  disposal  of  substituted  resources  produce  less  pollution.  For example  many  plastics  last  for  50  to  100  years  in  the  environment  before  they significantly decompose. The plastics are made from nonrenewable resource, petroleum, whereas trees are renewable.  Such considerations have led to substitution of paper  for plastic in many items, such as drinking cups and containers.

Although  it  can  be  useful  in  reducing  resource  depletion,  substitution  is  often  less desirable  than  efficiency  improvements  and  reuse/recycle.  Instead of reducing overall

resource  depletion  substitution  often  simply  switches  depletion  from  one  resource  to another.  This  can  be  satisfactory  if  the  new  resource  is  renewable,  as  in  paper  or  very abundant  as  with  glass  made  from  sand.

Furthermore, substitution does not solve the problems of pollution, solid waste or other output problems completely, for instance, the use of paper products offers many environmental advantages over plastic, but it may do little to solve landfill space problems. Paper is indeed a very big problem in urban areas currently.

It is very difficult to find affordable substitutes for some resources i.e water for most of its uses.  There  is  hardly  a  substitute  for  drinking and  agricultural  water,  so  increased efficiency and recycle/reuse of waste water are the common options.

Conclusion

The Need for Resource Management: The need for resource management is inescapable.  As human  population  and technologies  grow  inevitably  the  pressures  to  exploit  the  environmental  resources  will increase.  Proper management can help minimize environmental damage.   Careful planning of water use for instance could spare water for natural ecosystems that would have been used for agriculture.

Furthermore management can help undo past damage. Elimination of alien (introduced) species for example is a common management strategy for some biological communities.

Thus though resource management is not attractive concept in some ways, it is preferable to  the  alternative,  which  is  uncontrolled  resource  exploitation.  Global  society  will  be

facing  many  difficult  environmental  challenges  in  the  near  future.  This  being  the  case therefore, making informed decisions about how to use resources is essential for the well being of the resource and resource users. It  is  because  of  this  importance  of  resource  management  that  some  people  have  even resolved to consider the concept of resource management as  Human arrogance. They argue that viewing natural environment as ‘‘a resource’’ is a very narrow anthropocentric approach to nature.

Another  objection  is  that  the  concept  assumes  that  humans  not  only  should  manage environmental  resources  but  are  capable  of  managing them  effectively.  Environmental ethics revolve around whether humans have a right to tamper with nature and if so how much tampering is justified. If ethics are set aside, the assumption that humans are able as a practical reality, to effectively manage nature is not shown in human history.

RESOURCES USE CONFLICTS AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

NATURAL RESOURCES USE CONFLICTS

These are disagreements and disputes over access to, control and use of natural resources available in a particular area within a specified period of time (FAO, 2000).

The conflicts often emerge because people have different uses for resources such forests, water, land; minerals etc or want to manage them in different ways.

Sometimes this occurs as the result of incompatible interests and needs or when the priorities of some user groups/ stake holders are not considered in policies or short- term plans, projects and programs. In recent years, the scope and magnitude of natural resource use conflicts have increased and intensified.

These conflicts, if not addressed can escalate (cause increase) into violence, cause environmental degradation, disrupt projects, and undermine livelihood of the people.

Natural resources use conflicts have always been with us due to multiple and competing demands on resources.

They have been associated with the excludability of some user groups from participating in natural resources management. Conflicts have been associated with the contradictions between local and the introduced management systems, misunderstandings and lack of information about policy and program objectives, contradictions or lack of clarity in laws and policies, inequity in resources distribution, poor policy and program implementation with respect to natural resources use. Conflicts always exist to some degree in every community, but it can be often managed or resolved. They vary widely by place, and overtime.

They manifest themselves through breaking rules, or sabotage and violence.

Sometimes conflicts remain hidden or latent (present but unexpressed) due to fear, peer pressure, distrust, and financial constraints.

Types of Natural Resource Use Conflicts

They include;

a.                  The interest conflicts

b.                  The value conflicts

c.                   The cognitive conflicts

d.                  The behavioral conflicts

(i)                 The Interest Conflicts

These are conflicts that result from conflicting interests from different people on the use of a certain resource.

If the uses or interests are not compatible, conflicts are likely to occur.

They develop when the parties/ group have incompatible interests on the use of a particular resource

Example; Farmers v/s Pastoralists

               Forest conservationists against farmers

              Investors against local individuals etc

The interests differ because one resource may have multiple uses.

(ii)            Value Conflicts

These conflicts arise when there are opposing views as to what benefit/ value the resource shall give and who will benefit from a resource.

Human beings usually attach different values to natural resources, and the value of natural resources in one community can differ to the value of that very resource to other community.

Sometimes the value of a resource can differ among individuals in the same community.

Consider: watershed Forests.

(iii)          Cognitive Conflicts

They arise when there are different understandings of resources situation and technical information. Or

Arise due to perceptions and altitudes associated to the use knowledge and judgment of a particular technology over the available resources.

They are also as the result of community perceptions over a certain resource i.e. (The meaning they put over the resource)

For instance: Some Maasai perceive that every cattle is theirs, wherever they find cattle they claim to be theirs.

(iv)    Behavioral Conflicts

They arise when human beings do not understand or have difficulties with accepting other people’s behavior over certain resources.

It is a result of failure of communication to find out a practicable solution on the use of a particular resource.

E.g. Refugees and local community on forest resources

SOME OF THE CAUSES OF NATURAL RESOURCES USE CONFLICTS

i.           Population growth

ii.            Presence of exclusion policies

   E.g. 28% of Tanzania land is protected as N/Parks and G/ Reserves.

-             The local residents are forced / alienated from their areas hence conflicts.

-             Excluding human activities in N/Parks brings about conflicts.

iii.                Unequal distribution of land among the people

-          The haves own large land than they have notes.

iv.                Conflicting sectoral objectives

          E.g. When you read on urban water supply objective or Fisheries objectives- environmental conservation objectives, there will be contradicting ideas.

E.gConserving the land and land use/ activities fishing and water quality preservation. etc.

v.                  Tribalism /Regionalism

          E.g. ownership of resources and utilization of resources among the tribes/regions

vi.                Change of government political parties.

-       Political parties that different policies over the use of resources.

Case studies of natural resource use conflicts in Tanzania.

Determining factors for the continuing conflicts related to natural resources.

CASE STUDIES OF NATURAL RESOURCE USE CONFLICTS

a)      Conflicts over Natural Resources in Simanjiro District, Tanzania

Simanjiro District lies south of Arusha town on the Maasai steppe and is categorized as a semi-arid zone. 85% of the 65000 inhabitants who lived here in 1995 are Maasai pastoralists. There are also other Bantu groups, the majority recent immigrants, living in the district and practicing subsistence agriculture. Small groups of Ndorobo hunters and gathers are found scattered throughout the district. They are few in numbers compared to the pastoralists and farmers and are living in abject poverty.

In addition to livestock and vast stretches of open land the district is also bestowed with substantial quantities of gemstones and wildlife resources. Because of the availability of natural resources deemed necessary for development, various individuals and groups of people have migrated into the district in large numbers in recent years. This situation has led to various conflicts between the immigrants and inhabitants of the district over management and utilization of the available resources.

Background to the conflicts

Large scale commercial farming

Land use is a key issue and the alienation of land is a source of considerable tension in the district. By 1994 over 50 000 ha of land had been alienated in Simanjiro district for about 80 large scale farms ranging between 90 and 13 000 ha. These farms only produce seed beans, the majority of which are exported to Holland. To discourage and prevent pastoralists from grazing their cattle on these farms, all biomass residues are burnt immediately after harvest.

This type of land alienation is achieved through title deeds granted by the Government to the immigrant settlers without any consideration of the resident Maasai's land use needs. Although the law requires that before such deeds to public land are granted current owners and users are consulted, this is not always the case for pastoral lands.

In losing control of their right of land use planning over these alienated lands, the Maasai have in fact also been denied their livelihood which has been centredaround optimum use of resources through traditional pastoralism. The pastoral use of natural resources has an inbuilt flexibility which takes into consideration prevailing conditions and has proven to be an effective response to the exigencies of a difficult environment for many generations. This flexibility is now severely taxed as traditional grazing areas have been lost to large scale farms. Traditional grazing patterns have been disturbed or restricted to confined places which has led both to herd losses and to over exploitation and degradation of resources.

Land alienation inevitably includes the loss of vital traditional water sources as the land demarcated for the farms encompasses several natural water holes and springs to which herders are now denied access and control. Local pastoral control of water resources works because it is based on principles of equal and fair rights and responsibilities to share among all herders in need of water for their stock. Control by these new immigrants has meant exclusion of the pastoralists and this has only led to conflict.

The combined loss of grazing and water rights are the two most serious problems for the Maasai in Simanjiro. These are compounded by others. Stock routes to access other resources, ea. salt licks, livestock markets, etc. have been blocked by 'private real estates'. The language is 'Trespassers will be prosecuted' and it is not just a wooden law without meaning. Its active enforcement has daily implications for the Maasai. Examples abound of the shooting of cattle and people, of fines being levied, of cattle being confiscated and of pastoralists being imprisoned. To add insult to injury most of the land acquired through these title deeds is not put into immediate cultivation or grazing use but rather is held for speculative purposes. From the perspective of the pastoralists, who are restricted, barred and confined from the proximity of their land over which they now apparently have no acknowledged legal rights of access and control, this is a threat to their survival. They see this land, which they are in immediate need of using, lying idle. The result has been that the pastoralists' claims and immediate needs come into head on conflicts with the speculative purposes for which this land is being held.

Mining

The second source of land use conflicts in the district is the use of land for mining of gemstones and other precious minerals. Mining in the district started in the late 1960s when immigrant individual miners began digging pit mines down to 50 meters underground using only the crudest of equipment. The realisation of the seemingly unlimited supply of gemstones, especially the rare and precious 'tanzanite', coupled with the opening of the economy in the mid 1980s, has encouraged both national and foreign mining companies to rush into these areas to establish and expand mining operations. Previously small villages were quickly transformed into 'gold-rush' towns bustling with activity mostly carried out by and of benefit to people from outside the district and Maasai communities. Mining companies have obtained mining concessions over large chunks of pastoral lands from the Government to explore for and extract gemstones. Suddenly these lands became 'prohibited lands' to the pastoralists who are no longer allowed to use them for their own purpose. The expanding mining activities in the district are being carried out parallel to the main land use activity for which this area is best suited, ie. pastoralism. Mining has become a competitor rather than a complementary activity to pastoralism and in several cases is clearly antagonistic. These 'outsiders' have grabbed opportunities available in the district while local inhabitants have been left unaware of the economic value of the mining resources and have consequently been marginalised.

In addition to losing access to large areas of grazing land and water rights, mining activities have brought with them other hazards. These include increasing numbers of accidents when herders and their cattle have fallen into abandoned and uncovered mining pits and increasing numbers of livestock thefts by miners. Also there is serious environmental degradation, ea. deforestation due to land being cleared to facilitate mining activities and to meet the rising demand for fuelwood and charcoal in the numerous bustling towns. Soil erosion caused by this deforestation coupled to the underground soils being brought to the surface and washed into the rivers during the rainy season is polluting the rivers. Dynamite blasting is also making its contribution to environmental problems and, together with the pit mines, marrs the countryside with ugly scars.

Equally evident and perhaps even more harmful is the distortion of the Maasai culture. The influx of people to pastoral lands for mining opportunities has brought along with it alien and incompatible cultures and customs, new and previously unheard of human diseases, and new and conflicting knowledge systems and skills concerning nature and resource use, and conflicting interests.

Tourism

The third major area of conflicts over land use is related to tourism and its accompanying new ideas concerning wildlife resources management and utilization. In this regard it is important to make clear that pastoralism and wildlife (both wild animals and wild plants) are not in conflict with each other. In fact they have co-existed in harmony since time immemorial and a natural balance has existed in resource use. Today, the government's emphasis on mass tourism and top down approaches to wildlife management involves the establishment and expansion of protected areas and the enactment and enforcement of wildlife legislation. This has accelerated the competitive trends and accentuated the differences between the consumptive and non-consumptive approaches to natural resources. The modern world sees nature as something to be owned, consumed, hunted and photographed – bush meat, medicinal plants, hunters' trophies, the Maasai. The values of the Maasai have on the other hand stressed the non-consumptive values of nature and the importance of respecting the natural balances, which have included human enjoyment of these magnificent resources but also acknowledging the need to live in harmony as part of a whole.

The 'modern' seems to be winning and dominates the agenda, bringing with it the destruction of wildlife resources, now the 'property' of the state. The new rules and law enforcement practices in the name of wildlife conservation have been instituted to replace traditional methods of wildlife management. As a result, land has been lost to wildlife by creating protected areas (National Parks, Game Reserves, Buffer Zones, etc.). Households have been forced to stop their animals from grazing in these areas. At the same time the wild animals have been allowed to graze with domestic animals in traditional grazing areas such as the Simanjiro Plains. This situation has enabled the transmission of diseases like malignant catarrah fever from wildebeest to livestock. The pastoralists, to diminish the risk, have no choice but to surrender this grazing land to the wildebeest. However, they are not allowed to compensate this loss by grazing their herds in wildlife designated areas during times of the year when this would be safe. Nor are they compensated for diseases, lost fodder or damage to their crops. Rather, because it is an offence to graze in protected areas, the local residents are now being fined, imprisoned or having their livestock confiscated. The wildlife conservation effort is made antagonistic to the pastoralists way of life, thus leading to further conflicts.

Finding a way forward

In trying to find ways to address the serious conflicts and environmental problems presently existing in Simanjiro District it appears that a radical change is required. This change must be based on recognition of the Maasai's rights and capacity to make an informed contribution to the planning of all activities in their area. Acknowledging their capacity to manage the natural resources in a sustainable manner as well as their rights to do so implies that they must be given a leading voice in deciding how these resources, the land and water, the wildlife, and the minerals can best be utilized. This utilization can not only be to contribute in a meaningful way to the short term economic development of the country today. It must also ensure that local people, those dependent on these resources for their survival today and in the future, will benefit and be able to contribute to sustainable use that will help to create the kind of world where the needs of all take precedence over the greeds of a few. The challenge remains. Let their voices be heard.

Note

The situation in Simanjiro is critical and for the Maasai living here it is a question of their very survival. It is clear to us that natural resource management must be informed and directed by local communities who are one of the central stakeholders in these resources. Their inclusion in policy and decision making requires the direct communication of their perspectives on the problems and solutions with respect to land, natural resource management and tenure. We feel that the new video technology, as it has been used by the Maasai in Ngorongoro (see article on page 28) offers an opportunity to make this possible. We invited those who are involved in development work in this district to support such an effort.

b)THE NGORONGORO CONSERVATION AREA (NCA)

-       It was established in 1959

-                   The purpose for its establishment was to protect the unique blend of scenery, wildlife, human culture and pre- history.

-                   The area occupies 59% of Ngorongoro   district in the Northeastern part of Arusha region.

-                   It is not a national park, but a multi- use conservation  area.

I.e. managing diverse interests.

E.g. Tourism industry

Community development

Conservation of nature and wildlife etc.

-                   It is a UNESSCO world Heritage site and considered in the eighth wonders of the world.

-                   It is one the sites with great tourist attraction and yielding the highest foreign exchange income in the tourist sector.

-                   It is a home for a population of 59,858 Maasai / together owning a large number of cattle , donkeys, sheep and goals (national census, 2002)

E.g. cattle: 117, 300

Donkeys: 18441

Sheep and goal: 164, 490

-                   The beauty of Ngorongoro is the result of the reality that the Maasai pastoralists have co- existed harmoniously with flora and fauna for centuries.

-                   Historically, conservationists and   government decision makers have tended to look at the beauty and uniqueness of Ngorongoro area as something existing inspite of pastoralism and human influence rather because of pastoralist land management actions.

-                   The Ngorongoro conservation area pastoralists have been struggling for their human and civil rights since 1958, therefore the conflicts with conservation interests have prevailed over the last 50years.

-                   In the conservation process. The Maasai were internally displaced.

-                   The scenario of the internal displacement started when the Maasai traditional leaders agreed to sign a treaty to move with their herds and settle to the high lands of Ngorongoro  and never claim back the yast land of Ngorongoro . they were promised by the colonialists that they  would be provided with:

§    Better education

§    Water supply

§    Improve livelihood.

-                   The traditional leaders who signed the contract were by that unqualified people. In legal terms it means they were not of sound minds for the purpose of making the contracts.

-                   After giving up their land, they realized great loses of :-

·                  Vast grazing  area

·                  Permanent sources of water

·                  Salt licks.

-                   Being forced to stay in the highlands of Ngorongoro, their livestock’s were exposed to diseases like :- east coast fever (ECF), Rinderpest ,Tick born diseases

-                   Currently the Ngorongoro conservation area worries      about. Population increase, subsistence agriculture- problem, modern human settlement structure within NCA.

-                   The population growth is not compromising with the carrying capacity of the rangeland.

Key determining factors for the continuing conflicts within the Ngorongoro conservation area

1.               The Security of Land Tenure

-                   Alienation of pastoral land due to promotion of tourist services and conservation purpose.

       E.g. construction of tourist Hotels like SERENA SOPA lodges.

-                   Areas like Olmoti, Lemakarot, Losirwa, Olduvai etc are now restricted to settlement and grazing.

-                   The environmental degradation was most noted around the staff houses.

-                   The land in NCA is subjected to vagaries/ unpredictable- short- term  politically motivated changes and administrative decisions

The land use in N.C.A is a matter of political struggle rather than scientific planning or efficient management.

2.               Inappropriate Policies

There is a large body of literature examining several facts/ aspects regarding the lives of pastoralists in Ngorongoro.

The information have been developed into policies and laws with both negative and positive impacts to the inhabitants of the Ngorongoro conservation area.

The policies formulated from time to time increase tension to eliminate the local community. The local rights of occupation are extinguished/ put to an end.

Pastoralism has lacked support at the highest levels of government and has rarely, if even, benefited from the institutional frameworks designed for the improvement of the area.

3.               Increased Level of Vulnerability And Poverty

The ability of pastoralists to manage the ecological uncertainty and spread risks has been reduced significantly.

These have been a reduced mobility of herds and a change in the patterns of resources utilization and shrinkage of the resources base.

This has in turn led to livestock loses

§    Increased level of poverty

§    Food insecurity to the local inhabitants

§    Poor access to socio- economic services

§    Social dislocation

§    Political marginalization

4.               Deteriorating Water Infrastructure

Water is a very important resource to the Maasai of NCA for the daily use and management of pasture.

Most of permanent water sources are under the custodianship of specific people (hotels and lodges administration). This has been causing the continuing of the conflicts between the Maasai and the custodians of water.

Some water sources are naturally occurring springs, and some are managed springs or dug wells.

The problem of shortage of water has been as the result of the custodians of water to regulate the livestock access to water according to the amount of water available.

Water quality is highly contaminated by the livestock and wildlife urines.

5.               Lack of Vibrant Civil Society Organization

– The vibrant civil society could help in policy formulation issues. Also to defend and promote the interests of the indigenous Maasai.

There is lack of organizations that can defend the interest of pastoralists.

c) Natural resources use conflicts in Kasulu District

The main natural resources in Kasulu district are land, water (rivers), and forests. Land is mainly used for peasantry farming, and there is small scale irrigation in the river valleys i.e. vegetable cultivation. The native ethnic group is “Waha” which is dominant, whereas the “Wasukuma” ethnic group from Mwanza and Shinyanga regions is the minority. Generally, in Kasulu district, land is not limited – there is big uncultivated land and adequate water sources; districts at nearby regions land is not limited as well, but it is comparatively less fertile; it receives inadequate and unreliable rainfall, and there are limited water sources.

Those nearby districts are from Shinyanga and Mwanza regions where there are many pastoralists – “Wasukuma” ethnic group. Pastoralists (“Wasukuma” in particular) normally migrate from their original locations to other places within and without Wikipedia:Tanzania in search of pastures for their cattle as pastures and water from their original localities are continuing to decrease time after time due to overuse of natural vegetation and corresponding climate change. Natural resources use is now causing turbulence between the local community “Waha” and some Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo refugees from Mtabila and Nyagarusu camps respectively and “Wasukuma” (pastoralists) from Shinyanga and Mwanza regions. Refugees are cutting trees and hunting some of wild animals in community forests while “Wasukuma” are accompanied with big flocks of cattle which cause environmental degradation and sometimes feed on/destroy crops in the farms.

Conflicts regarding natural resources use in Kasulu district have been resolved amicably through the systems in place, such as police and game reserve guards that cooperate with community; leadership chain i.e. from Ten Cell Leader to the District Commissioner; Experts – there are Village Extension Agents, teachers, famous people, and others at village level who also contribute to the protection of natural resources and conflict resolution and; there are also scheduled conflict resolution meetings and ward tribunal councils aiming at discussing and resolving issues related to the natural resources use since they are not violent.[10] Hence, further and sustainable measures should be done to stop those conflicts from growing from non violent to violent stage.

RESOURCES USE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

In NRM it has been argued that there are diverse NR use conflicts, but people typically may accept the conflict resolution using various methods/ styles.

-                   Different styles are most useful in different situations e.g. Magnitude, place, member of the society, political issues, socio- economic status etc and each has its strengths and weaknesses.

The Styles / Methods include:-

i.                 Collaborative Style

They to meet all the needs of the people involved in the conflict.

Treat everyone as an important person in the matter concerned.

Bring together variety of viewpoints to get the best solution- e.g. history of the conflict etc.

ii.               Compromising Style

-                   Look / find a solution that would at least partially satisfy everyone.

-                   Everyone is supposed to give up something and relinquish something.

-                   Show the people the cost of conflict is higher than the cost of losing.

iii.             Accommodating Style

-                   This involves willingness to meet the needs of others at the expense of the person’s needs.

-                   It means that should be adaptable enough to allow things be done without major changes. They should adjust in response to the needs of somebody.

iv.             Avoiding Style

Persuade people to avoid the conflict entirely. They should delegate controversial decisions, accept default decisions, and not wanting to hurt anyone’s feelings. Mostly applied when the victory is impossible

v.               Use of Force/War

-                   Make sure that all people accept the decision or they like or not.

-                   Take firm stand to what has / have been decided for a fast implementation.

-                   It is coercive in nature, sometimes involve the use of force, threats etc to make people accept the decision against their will.

INTEGATING NATURAL RRSOURCES MANAGEMENT

-                   To integrate means make something open to all. It also refers to the process of making a group, community, place or organization aware and able to participate into a particular aspect regardless of race, ethnicity, religion, gender or social/ class.

Importance of integrated resource management

i) Integrated resource management will help environmental managers and governments at

large to apply long term goals and set priorities based on information about all resources. This will further maintain the health of our ecosystems in which resources are found

ii) Resource managers will be able to periodically plan, act, control, balance and report on the actual consumption of all resources.

iii) Integrated resource management will create synergies and new efficiencies from all resources working together

iv) Integrated resource utilization will integrate sustainability issues in all administration

departments

v) Integrated resource management is the approach that will support politicians in setting

priorities and steering local sustainability, as well as gaining a comprehensive overview of available resources

vi) Integrated resource management will further reduce or eliminate resource user conflicts

-                   Natural resources management needs participatory methods for its success. One of the methods include participatory  rural appraisal (PRA)

PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL

-                   This is a collaborative decision making and it is a community- based method.

-                   It is a label given to a growing family of participatory methods that emphasize or local knowledge and enable local people to make their own appraisal, analysis, and plans for NRM.

-                   It facilitates information sharing, analysis, and action among stake holders.

-                   Originally it was developed for use in rural areas, but it has been employed successfully in a variety of settings including urban areas.

-                   Its purpose is to enable development practitioners, government officials, and local people to work together and plan appropriate programs with respect to NRM.

-                   Under this method data collection and analysis are undertaken by local people, with outsiders facilitating rather than controlling. This gives the local community a sense of belonging and feeling that they are valued hence avoiding conflict.

Key Tenets of PRA

I.                Participation

Local people’s input into PRA activities is essential to its value in planning for NRM because it makes people p[participate and have a sense of being considered and not ignored.

Local people usually know very well all the necessary things that are to be considered in the whole process of NRM.

II.             Team Work

-                   All necessary things should be done through interaction and brainstorming among the involved.

-                   It should be done by a team that include local people with perspective and knowledge of the area’s conditions and social structure.

-                   A well balanced team should represent the diversity of socio-economic, cultural, gender, and generational perspectives.

III.          Flexibility

PRA does not provide blueprints for its practitioners.

The combination of techniques that are appropriate will be determined by the size of the context and skills of PRA team, time and resources available, location, etc.

IV.          Ignoring Optimal Ignorance.

This is connected to the factor that should be efficient in teams of both time and money.

PRA tends to gather/ collect enough information to make necessary recommendations and decisions in NRM.

V.             Triangulation

To ensure that the information is valid and reliable, PRA teams follow the rule of thumb that at least three sources must be consulted or appropriate techniques must be used to investigate the same topics with regards to NRM.

PROTECTED AREAS MANAGEMENT

What is a protected area?

-                      IUCN (International Union For Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources); defines the protected area as an area of land or sea specifically dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources managed through legal or other effective means

-                      Although all protected areas meet the general purposes mentioned in the above definition, in practice the precise purpose for which protected areas are managed differ from different categories.

CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREAS

-                      There are major six categories of the protected areas

We differentiate these categories by considering the primary purposes/ management objectives/ reasons/ rationale

Category 1      (a) Strict Nature Reserve

                        (b) Wilderness area 

(a)                STRICT NATURE RESERVES

-                      The main purpose for protection is for science (The study of physical and Natural world)

Definition

-                      It is an area of land or sea possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems, geological or physiological features or species available primarily for scientific  research or environmental  monitoring

Eg. Amani Nature Reserve

            Eastern Arc mountain (Uluguru, East Usanbara, Udzungwa)- propositions are underway

Objective of the management

i.                    To preserve habitats, ecosystems and species in an undisturbed state as possible

ii.                  To maintain established ecological processes

iii.                To secure examples of  natural environment for scientific studies, environmental monitoring and education

iv.                To  limit public access  

(b)               WILDERNESS AREA

-                      This is  a protected area that is managed mainly for wilderness protection

Definition 

-                      The large area of unmodified or slightly modified land or sea retaining its natural character and influence without permanent or significant human habitation which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition.

Category 2: NATIONAL PARKS

-                      The primary objective of National Park is ecosystem protection and recreation

Eg. Serengeti, Mikumietc

Definition

            It is a natural area of land or sea designed

v    To protect ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for present and future generations,

v    To exclude exploitation or occupation to the purposes of designation of the area.

v    To provide a foundation for spiritual scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.

Objectives of National Parks Management

i.                    To protect natural and scenic areas of national and international significant for spiritual scientific, educational, and recreational or tourist purposes.

ii.                  To perpetuate in as natural state as possible a representative examples of physiographic regions, biotic communities, genetic resources and species to provide ecological stability and diversity.

iii.                To manage visitor use for inspirational, educational, cultural and recreational purposes which will maintain the area in a natural or near natural state.

iv.                To maintain respect for ecological geomorphologies sacred or aesthetic attributes which warrant designation.

Category 3: NATURAL MONUMENT

-                      The primary purpose for protection is conservation of specific natural features

Eg.     

vMbozi meteorite

vAmboni caves

v    Natural monument in lake Manyara

vBismark rocks – Mwanza

Definition 

-                      It is an area containing one or more specific natural or cultural feature which is of outstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative qualities,  or cultural significance.

Objectives of Natural monument management

i.                    To protect or preserve perpetuity specific outstanding natural features because of their natural significance, uniqueness or representation quality or spiritual connotations.

ii.                  To provide opportunities for research, education interpretation and public appreciation.

iii.                To provide benefits to the surrounding community

iv.                To eliminate and thereafter prevent exploitation or occupation with respect to the purpose of designation.

Category 4: HABITATS OR SPECIES MANAGEMENT AREA

-                      The primary purpose of this is to  manage the areas for conservation through management   intervention (Endangered species protection/ management )

Selous

Eg.  

v    Game reserves – habitat

vNgorongoro conservation area (NCA) – species – habitat

Definition

-                      It is the area of land or sea subjected to active intervention for management purposes so as to ensure maintenance of habitats to meet the requirements of specific species.

Objectives of management

i.                    To provide benefits to the surrounding community

ii.                  To facilitate  scientific research and environmental monitoring as primary activities associated with sustainable resources management.

iii.                To secure and maintain the habitat conditions necessary to protect significant species, groups of species, biotic communities or physical feature of the environment  where these require specific attention.

Category 5:  PROTECTED LANDSCAPE OR SEASCAPE

-                      The primary purpose for this is management of landscape and seascape for conservation and recreation.

Eg. Seascape in Tanzania                    Msambeni  -Tanga

Bagamoyo

Rufiji – Mafia complex

Landscape            Longido Heart lands; which include the slopes of mount Kilimanjaro and Savannah area of Longido.

            Contains mammal and birds (more than 400 species)

            In this area, the Maasai people (pastoralists) have lived here for over 400 years; they have

co-existed with the wildlife in a relative harmony.

vTarangire / Manyaro Heart land

v    Mafia Island

Definition

-                      It is an area of land or sea where the interaction of people and nature overtime has produced an area of distinct character with significant ecological or cultural values and often with biological diversity.

-                      Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the  protection, maintenance and evaluation of such areas

Objectives of management

i.                    To maintain harmonious interaction of nature and culture through the protection of landscape or seascape and the continuation of traditional land uses building practices and socio-cultural values.

ii.                  To support lifestyle and economic activities which are in harmony with nature and the prevention of socio-cultural fabric of the communities concerned.

iii.                To maintain the diversity of landscape and habitat of associated species and ecosystem.

iv.                To eliminate where necessary and thereafter prevent land uses and activities which are inappropriate in scale and character.

v.                  To provide opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism appropriate in scale and type.

Category 6: MANAGED RESOURCES PROTECTED AREA

-                      The main purpose of this is to protect a resource for sustainable use of natural ecosystem

Eg.

v    Many forest reserves

vKazimzumbwe protected area

v    Mafia island

vMnazi boy – Ruvuma

Definition 

-                      It is an area containing predominantly natural systems managed to ensure long term protection and maintenance of biological diversity while at the sometime providing sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community needs.

Objectives of management

i.                    To protect and maintain the biological diversity and other natural values of the area in a long term

ii.                  To promote sound management practices for sustainable production purposes

iii.                To protect the natural resources base by being alternated for other hand use purposes that would be detrimental to the area’s biodiversity

iv.                To contribute to regional and national development.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF AREAS FOR PROTECTION

Category 1: STRICT NATURE RESERVE/ WILDERNESS AREA

v    Protected area managed mainly for science/wilderness protection

Criteria

1.  The area should be large enough to ensure integrity of its ecosystems and to accomplish the management objectives for which it is protected.

2.        It should be significantly free from direct human intervention and capable of remaining so.

Category 2: NATIONAL PARK

v    Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation

Criteria

1.                  The area should contain a representative sample of natural regions, features, or  scenery where plant and animal species, habitats and geomorphologic sites are of special spiritual scientific educational recreational and tourist significant.

2.                  The area should be large enough to contain one or more entire ecosystems not materially altered by current human occupation or exploitation.

Category 3: NATURAL MONUMENTS

v    Protected area, managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features

Criteria

1.                  The area should contain one or more features of outstanding significance, example waterfalls, caves, crators, sand dunes, marine  features, unique or representative flora and founa, archeological sites etc.

2.                  The area should be large enough to protect the integrity of the feature and its immediately surroundings.

Category 4: HABITATS OR SPECIES MANAGEMENT AREAS

v    Protected are  managed mainly for conservation through management intervention

Criteria

1.                  The area should play an important role in the protection of nature and survival of species.

2.                  The area should be one where the protection of the habitat is essential to the wellbeing of nationally or locally important flora or to residents or migratory founa.

3.                  The conservation of these habitats and species should depend upon active intervention by the management authority.

4.                  The size of the area should depend on the habitat requirements of the species to be protected and may range from relatively small area to a very extensive area.

Category 5: PROTECTED LANDSCAPE OR SEASCAPE

v    Protected area managed mainly for conservation and recreation

1.                  The area should posses a landscape  or coastal and seascape of high scenic quality with diverse associated habitats of flora and founa. It should manifest the unique or traditional land use patterns and social organizations as evidenced  in human settlements, local customs livelihoods and beliefs.

2.                  These should provide opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal lifestyle an economic activities

Category 6: MANAGED RESOURCE PROTECTED AREA

v    Protected area managed mainly for resources protection for sustainable use of natural ecosystem

1.                  The area should be atleast 2/3 (two thirds) in a natural condition: although it may also contain limited areas of modified ecosystems.

Large commercial plantations would not be appropriate for inclusion in the managed resources protected area.

2.                     The area should be large enough to absorb sustainable resource uses without detriment to its overall long term natural values.

PREPARING MANAGEMENT PLANS FOR PROTECTED AREA

Management plan

-                      Is a written document that guides the management process of a particular protected area/ National parks.

What is the all about?

-                      It describes the physical biological and cultural features of the area within the local regional and national  levels.

-                      It describes the appropriate use of a particular protected are (National Park)

i.e.       It lists / shows in a chronological order all the activities to be carried out so as to achieve the proposed or agreed management goals.  

WHY DO WE NEED A MANAGEMENT PLAN?

(RATIONALE FOR MANAGEMENT PLAN)

1.                  It helps to guide the activities and organize the approach in managing the National Parks (protected area)

2.                  To avoid the mistakes of the past and apply successful experiences from other management plans.

3.                  To ensure economies by reducing duplication, so as to facilitate cost effective analysis and plot a logical approach to the future.

4.                  To ensure proper allocation of resources interims of staff and equipment.

5.                  To ensure public and enhance cooperation among community/ local, non-governmental and governmental agencies.

i.e. Good public relations and cooperation among stakeholders          benefactors                                                                                                                                         benefactories

6.                  To achieve the balance between conservation goals and human needs through the use of resources within the protected areas (National Parks). 

STEPS IN PREPARING THE MANAGEMENT PLAN

1.                  Identify the basic purpose of the area

-                      The planner formulates the purpose based on the national conservational objectives,  policies and general legislations with regards to six categories of  protected area.

2.                  To define the objectives and goods of the management

-                      This can be done by considering the categories of objectives namely:

a.                   Environmental or resources management objectives

v    Conservation objectives

v    Human needs objectives

b.                  Visitors management objectives

v    Recreational issues

c.                   Operations management objectives

v    Facilities

v    Staffs etc.

3.                  Assess the available resources/ baseline resources

-                      Seek the basic information about

v    Resources available

v    Topography (Areas features/ structures)

v    Soils

v    Climate etc.

-                      This gives the general background information of the area, then draw map of the area.

-                      During assessment of the available resources, try your best to cover the following information. 

v    Biological resources

v    Physical resources

v    The interactions between the resources

-                      Also look at

v    Cultural features

v    Their location, quality and the distribution etc.

(iii) Limitations constraints in managing the particular area

Look at physical, political, social constraints

Legal, human, financial constraints

(iv) Land and other resources use in the area

-                      Describe and map all the uses especially that may cause changes in the environment

i.e. (The uses that may constraint the basic management goals).

(v) The basic infrastructure in the area

(vi) Regional influences and integration of the area

v    Tran boundary resources etc.

4.                  To analyse and refine the information

-                      Look at the information that you have

-                      Look at the management objectives so as to see whether you can gain the objectives, given the constraints within the body of information that  you have.

-                      Refine the objectives; sometimes you may decide to drop some depending on the constraints you have

5.                  Define the regional land use zones

-                      These are the zones of influence and should include specific areas that may have the influence in the protected area.

Example: Buffer zones – (zones of trsnition)

v    Water sheds

v    Wildlife corridors (passage way of animals)

6.                   Define the area’s management zones

-                      Divide the area into smaller units according to the management goals and uses

-                      Each zone should have its own  management objectives.

-                      This process of zoning helps to achieve the specific objectives for which the  area is managed.

7.                  Implementation and evaluation

-                      Set the schedule for implementation

-                      Estimate the costs before the actual management begans

-                      Review and approve the plan through consultations

-                      Put the plan into effect within the limitations of the funds, human resources and time.

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT POLICIES AND PRACTICES

PROPERTY RIGHTS AND REGIMES

Introduction

The concept of property rights was developed by an English theorist John Locke (1632 – 1704). The theory was so detailed and it is on private ownership of property. According to  Locke,  in  the  original  state  of  nature,  land  (used  here  in  a  general  sense  to  include bodies of water) and its resources are un owned, but every person (human being) owns his or her own body and the labour produced by the body. When a person mixes her or his labour  (which  is  privately  owned)  with  unowned  land or  resources,  then  that  person comes to own the land or the resources derived from it. Thus by mixing the owned labour of the body with the unowned material objects of nature come to be owned labour of the body with unowned material objects of nature, the objects of nature come to be owned by owner of the labour. A settler, who goes into wilderness, clears the land, builds a house and plants crops and thereby becomes a property owner. This scenario tend to ignore any indigenous people who  may have occupied the land previously and it accords property right only to humans and ignores the fauna and flora in the area concerned.

Property rights

Property rights combine the accessibility ownership and utilization of the natural resources available. All economic goods have a property rights attribute. This attribute has three broad components:

i. The right to use the good

ii. The right to earn income from the good

iii. The right to transfer the good to others

Property right regimes involve the arrangements on which natural resources users, either groups or individual, have the rights and duties towards a particular resource. An important feature of property  rights is the ability to exclude others from using certain resources, this has an influence on the management of resources. Property  rights over natural resources should provide a good stand for all individuals without segregation as stipulated in the available natural resources, policies.

A  property right is the exclusive authority to determine how a resource is used, whether that resource is owned by government or by individuals.  The property right regime should express the strengths and the bandle of rights an individual owns in terms of accessibility, ownership, control and utilization.  

Importance of property rights

1.                  Help us to understand the rights and uses of resources

2.                  Help to provide tips on how to manage the resources

3.                  To understand- who owns controls the resources

4.                  To predict the consequences on the resources available.

Types of property right regimes

-                      The types of property rights in natural resources include

i.                    Public property

-                      Under this, the general public has the right to utilize the natural resources available within defined arrangement.

-                      The management of the natural resources under public property regime/ form is the responsibility of the government or public  sector.

Have a critical look towards the natural resources available in Tanzania

Example

Water              Ocean

Lakes           - Who owns these

Rivers           - Who emphasizes over the management (cultivating  near etc.)

Minerals                                                       =II=

ii.                  Private Property

-                      Here the individuals have the right to own and control the natural resources

-                      His regime comes with an element of excludability and such rights are defined by law and can easily be transferable into gods and services

-                      Usually the title deal (the document that show the evidence of somebody’s legal rights to property)

-                      The management of natural resources under this regime is the responsibility of individuals or Private companies operating within the limit set by the policies and laws.

iii.                Common Property

-                      A group (community members) share the right towards maintaining accessing and using particular natural resources

-                      This means that the defined members of a certain group (with clarified criteria to belong in a group) are given the right to own and control the resources.

-                      Therefore, non-members are not allowed to use the resources

Consider the tragedy of the commons; The individuals attempt to exploit the resources of a group, but only harm themselves because everyone adopts the same strategy and resources are uniformly depleted.

-                      The management of natural  resources in under the local leadership of the group

The community institution determines access and control of resources according to customary laws, norms, traditions and rules-that govern the community. 

iv.                Open access/ Common pool property

-                      Under this form, everybody has the right to access and use particular resources available

There is no specific rights set to a specific  group or community or individual, but rather everybody has the right to use and manage  a particular  natural resources  

-                       Therefore, the management is under those who are using that resources.

-                      In most cases, the por make extensive use of the resources  because no one has exclusive rights.

-                      The materials obtained from common pool/open access properties consists of a wide range of  items for personal use or sale

Examples, Food, Fodder, manure taboos, medical, plants, honey, building materials, sea weeds, shellfish etc.

NR – MANAGEMENT REGIME 

-                      These are four types of management  regimes namely

i.                    State management regime

ii.                  Local management regime

iii.                Private management regime

iv.                Community management regime

i.                    STATE MANAGEMENT REGIME

-                      This include executive, legislative and judiciary with which all the rules and laws are passed  supreme and interpreted  to govern the use and management of the natural resources. 

-                      This management regime includes: Judiciary, beaucracy, regional forces and local government.

-                      Therefore, the management (ownership, finance and control) of the natural resources is determined by the state with its assisting parties.

ii.                  LOCAL MANAGEMENT REGIME

-                      Here, the communities are increasingly involved in the management of natural resources under the concept of participatory management.

-                      The communities participate in planning, decision making, implementation and evaluation of communal based management of natural resources

-                      The communities share benefits from the proposed management approaches.

-                      This regime is much used in wildlife and forest conservation and management.

The communities play a key role in management of the resources jointly with the government which joins the community in the management process. 

-                       Community members help in patrolling and reporting the poachers etc.

iii.                PRIVATE MANAGEMENT REGIME

-                      It is more feasible/ possible particularly where safe market institutions and private property traditions exist

-                      Under this regime, profit motivation can ignore public interest in the conservation of natural resources.

-                      The management of the  natural resources may be focused to the economic/ profit interest

i.e. The owners may decide to maximize profit without considering the sustainable use of the particular natural resources. 

iv.                COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT REGIME

-                      The community members (community institutions) with their leaders, basing to the norms and traditions involve themselves fully in natural resource management process

-                      Community based organizations can be formed to help mobilize people in the community to manage the natural resources available for the benefits to all community members.

PRIORITIES AND STRATEGIES FOR ACTION IN THE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

            In developing countries (Tanzania)

i.                    On Population growth

1.                  To launch a time bound national campaigns for population stabilization with the small family size as a social responsible objective.

2.                  To increase support for female education employment and increase social security programmes (sure of old security)

3.                  To increase access of the means of  family planning and healthcare facilities

4.                  Added incentives interms of family planning

5.                  Environmental unhygienic prevention and  control of communicable diseases to  increase the probability of children / people’s  survival

6.                  Provision of health education to people.

ii.                  On natural resources

a.                   Land and water resources

1.                  To have an integrated land  and water management approach for sustainable food, production, animal husbandry and other activities

2.                  To have  the classification, zoning and  appointment of land  for designated issue such as agriculture, forestry grassland, industrial activities, catchment areas, human settlements and watersheds

3.                  Enactment of the laws for appropriate land and water uses so as to protect the resources from degradation

4.                  Protection of land near water bodies and prevention of construction activities along these areas

5.                  To ensure clear property right regimes that ensures equitable access to responsibility    for sustainable land and water resources.

6.                  To encourage and improve the traditional knowledge on land and water resources management.

b.                   The atmosphere

1.                  To use clean fuels and clean technologies

Eg. Avoid, high use of coal

                                    Nuclear power 

2.                    To have energy efficient devices for air and noise pollution control

3.                  Proper location of projects to minimize the adverse impact on people and environment

4.                  To develop the coping modernisms for future climatic changes as the result of increased emission of Co2 and other green house gases.

c.                   Biodiversity

1.                  Intensification of surveys of biological resources of the country including the island and marine  ecosystems

e.g.  Information on the distribution patterns of species and status of the species

2.                   Conservation of the biological  diversity through a network of protected areas including

·                     Marine reserves, national parks and game reserves, wetlands etc.

3.                  Conservation of micro-fauna and micro-flora including the revival of biological potential lands.

4.                  Protection and sustainable use of plant and animal genetic resources through appropriate laws and practices.

5.                  Maintenance of corridors between national parks, forest and other protected areas